Uterus, Cervix, and Fallopian Tubes: Anatomy

Overview and Development

Overview

The uterus, cervix, and fallopian tubes are all important organs in the female reproductive tract.

Location

The uterus and fallopian tubes are pelvic organs.

• 2 fallopian tubes (left and right):
  • Arise from the superolateral portions of the uterus
  • Connect the ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy (female gonads Gonads The gamete-producing glands, ovary or testis. Hormones: Overview and Types) to the uterus
• Uterus: in the midline, between the bladder Bladder A musculomembranous sac along the urinary tract. Urine flows from the kidneys into the bladder via the ureters, and is held there until urination. Pyelonephritis and Perinephric Abscess and the rectum Rectum The rectum and anal canal are the most terminal parts of the lower GI tract/large intestine that form a functional unit and control defecation. Fecal continence is maintained by several important anatomic structures including rectal folds, anal valves, the sling-like puborectalis muscle, and internal and external anal sphincters. Rectum and Anal Canal: Anatomy
• Cervix: inferior portion of the uterus, connecting the uterine cavity to the vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy
• Relationship to peritoneal cavity Peritoneal Cavity The space enclosed by the peritoneum. It is divided into two portions, the greater sac and the lesser sac or omental bursa, which lies behind the stomach. The two sacs are connected by the foramen of winslow, or epiploic foramen. Peritoneum: Anatomy:
  • Intraperitoneal Intraperitoneal Peritoneum: Anatomy (i.e., covered by peritoneum Peritoneum The peritoneum is a serous membrane lining the abdominopelvic cavity. This lining is formed by connective tissue and originates from the mesoderm. The membrane lines both the abdominal walls (as parietal peritoneum) and all of the visceral organs (as visceral peritoneum). Peritoneum: Anatomy):
    • Most of the uterus
    • Fallopian tubes are intraperitoneal Intraperitoneal Peritoneum: Anatomy structures
  • Subperitoneal (i.e., entirely below the peritoneal cavity Peritoneal Cavity The space enclosed by the peritoneum. It is divided into two portions, the greater sac and the lesser sac or omental bursa, which lies behind the stomach. The two sacs are connected by the foramen of winslow, or epiploic foramen. Peritoneum: Anatomy): cervix

Function

• Uterus:
  • Site of implantation Implantation Endometrial implantation of embryo, mammalian at the blastocyst stage. Fertilization and First Week for a fertilized embryo Embryo The entity of a developing mammal, generally from the cleavage of a zygote to the end of embryonic differentiation of basic structures. For the human embryo, this represents the first two months of intrauterine development preceding the stages of the fetus. Fertilization and First Week
  • Growth and nourishment of the fetus
  • Able to shed its lining when pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care does not occur (i.e., menstruation Menstruation The periodic shedding of the endometrium and associated menstrual bleeding in the menstrual cycle of humans and primates. Menstruation is due to the decline in circulating progesterone, and occurs at the late luteal phase when luteolysis of the corpus luteum takes place. Menstrual Cycle)
• Cervix:
  • Opening of the uterus into the vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy, which leads out of the body:
    • Allows passage of menstrual blood into the vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy 
    • Allows sperm into the uterus
  • Secretes fluid that can promote or inhibit sperm entry into the uterus, depending on the stage of the menstrual cycle Menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle is the cyclic pattern of hormonal and tissular activity that prepares a suitable uterine environment for the fertilization and implantation of an ovum. The menstrual cycle involves both an endometrial and ovarian cycle that are dependent on one another for proper functioning. There are 2 phases of the ovarian cycle and 3 phases of the endometrial cycle. Menstrual Cycle
  • In pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care:
    • Keeps the uterus closed and protected during pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care
    • Dilates during labor to allow delivery of the fetus
• Fallopian tubes:
  • Accept an oocyte from the ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy upon ovulation Ovulation The discharge of an ovum from a rupturing follicle in the ovary. Menstrual Cycle
  • Facilitate movement of the oocyte along the tube to meet a potential sperm
  • Typical site of fertilization Fertilization To undergo fertilization, the sperm enters the uterus, travels towards the ampulla of the fallopian tube, and encounters the oocyte. The zona pellucida (the outer layer of the oocyte) deteriorates along with the zygote, which travels towards the uterus and eventually forms a blastocyst, allowing for implantation to occur. Fertilization and First Week by the sperm
  • Facilitate movement of a fertilized embryo Embryo The entity of a developing mammal, generally from the cleavage of a zygote to the end of embryonic differentiation of basic structures. For the human embryo, this represents the first two months of intrauterine development preceding the stages of the fetus. Fertilization and First Week into the uterus for implantation Implantation Endometrial implantation of embryo, mammalian at the blastocyst stage. Fertilization and First Week

Embryologic development

• The uterus, cervix, and fallopian tubes derive from the paramesonephric ducts Paramesonephric ducts A pair of ducts near the wolffian ducts in a developing embryo. In the male embryo, they degenerate with the appearance of testicular anti-mullerian hormone. In the absence of anti-mullerian hormone, mullerian ducts give rise to the female reproductive tract, including the oviducts; uterus; cervix; and vagina. Development of the Urogenital System (müllerian ducts)
• At 6 weeks of embryologic life, the müllerian ducts fuse at the caudal end:
  • The fused medial/caudal portion gives rise to the uterus and upper vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy.
  • The unfused lateral/cranial portions give rise to the fallopian tubes.
• A longitudinal midline septum exists within the uterine cavity where the müllerian ducts came together → usually regresses by week 20
• The gubernaculum Gubernaculum An embryonic structure that helps guide proper descent of gonads into their final positions. It attaches the caudal end of the fetal gonads to the developing scrotum in male and the labium majorum in female. It gives rise to the caudal ligaments of the gonad: the scrotal ligament in male and the uterine round and proper ovarian ligaments in female. It includes morphofunctional equivalent structures in non-mammals. Congenital Malformations of the Female Reproductive System gives rise to the supporting ligaments (broad and round ligaments).

Gross Anatomy

Structure and size of the uterus

• Pear-shaped and hollow 
• Composed of smooth muscle
• Size:
  • Length: 7–8 cm
  • Width: 4–5 cm
  • Thickness: 2.5–4 cm

Parts of the uterus

• Fundus Fundus The superior portion of the body of the stomach above the level of the cardiac notch. Stomach: Anatomy: broad, superior curvature of the uterus
• Body:
  • Main central portion
  • Uterine horns: superior lateral openings to the fallopian tubes
  • Uterine cavity:
    • Internal cavity
    • Shaped like an inverted triangle
    • Also referred to as the endometrial cavity
• Isthmus:
  • Narrowing of the uterus just inferior to its body 
  • The transition point between the uterine body and the cervix
• Cervix:
  • Fibrous Fibrous Fibrocystic Change, cylindrical structure; makes up the inferior portion of the uterus
  • Connected to and leads into the vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy
  • Cervical canal: passage leading from the uterine cavity into the vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy
  • Internal os: internal opening of the canal into the uterine body
  • External os: external opening of the canal into the vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy
    • Visible on speculum exam
    • Has an anterior and a posterior lip
    • Shape and size of the external os differs between nulliparous and multiparous Multiparous A woman with prior deliveries Normal and Abnormal Labor women.

Uterine orientations

The uterus is often tilted or bent forward or backward. It is clinically important to determine the orientation Orientation Awareness of oneself in relation to time, place and person. Psychiatric Assessment of the uterus before any uterine procedure in order to minimize risks of complications (like uterine perforation Perforation A pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force. Esophagitis). The 5 orientations are:

• Anteverted:
  • The entire uterus is tilted forward, over the bladder Bladder A musculomembranous sac along the urinary tract. Urine flows from the kidneys into the bladder via the ureters, and is held there until urination. Pyelonephritis and Perinephric Abscess.
  • The most common orientation Orientation Awareness of oneself in relation to time, place and person. Psychiatric Assessment
• Anteflexed: forward bend in the body musculature, in addition to being anteverted
• Midposition: between anteverted and retroverted positions
• Retroverted: tilted posteriorly, toward the rectum Rectum The rectum and anal canal are the most terminal parts of the lower GI tract/large intestine that form a functional unit and control defecation. Fecal continence is maintained by several important anatomic structures including rectal folds, anal valves, the sling-like puborectalis muscle, and internal and external anal sphincters. Rectum and Anal Canal: Anatomy
• Retroflexed: backward bend in the body musculature, in addition to being retroverted

Anatomic relationships of the uterus

The uterus is in contact with a number of other organs and spaces:

• Anteriorly:
  • Bladder Bladder A musculomembranous sac along the urinary tract. Urine flows from the kidneys into the bladder via the ureters, and is held there until urination. Pyelonephritis and Perinephric Abscess
  • Vesicouterine pouch: recess formed by the peritoneal fold between the uterus and bladder Bladder A musculomembranous sac along the urinary tract. Urine flows from the kidneys into the bladder via the ureters, and is held there until urination. Pyelonephritis and Perinephric Abscess
• Posteriorly:
  • Rectum Rectum The rectum and anal canal are the most terminal parts of the lower GI tract/large intestine that form a functional unit and control defecation. Fecal continence is maintained by several important anatomic structures including rectal folds, anal valves, the sling-like puborectalis muscle, and internal and external anal sphincters. Rectum and Anal Canal: Anatomy
  • Rectouterine pouch
    • Also known as the Douglas pouch
    • The recess formed by the peritoneal fold between the rectum Rectum The rectum and anal canal are the most terminal parts of the lower GI tract/large intestine that form a functional unit and control defecation. Fecal continence is maintained by several important anatomic structures including rectal folds, anal valves, the sling-like puborectalis muscle, and internal and external anal sphincters. Rectum and Anal Canal: Anatomy and the posterior uterine wall
    • Lowermost point of the peritoneum Peritoneum The peritoneum is a serous membrane lining the abdominopelvic cavity. This lining is formed by connective tissue and originates from the mesoderm. The membrane lines both the abdominal walls (as parietal peritoneum) and all of the visceral organs (as visceral peritoneum). Peritoneum: Anatomy
• Laterally: 
  • Fallopian tubes
  • Ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy
  • Broad ligament
  • Pelvic sidewall
• Superiorly: small intestines
• Inferiorly: vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy

Structure of the fallopian tubes

Fallopian tubes are also known as uterine tubes. These paired, thin muscular tubes are attached to the uterus and are approximately 10 cm in total length. There are 4 parts, as follows, in order from lateral to medial.

• Infundibulum:
  • Lateral-most part of the tubes, in close association with the ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy
  • Funnel-shaped with finger-like projections called fimbriae Fimbriae Thin, hairlike appendages, 1 to 20 microns in length and often occurring in large numbers, present on the cells of gram-negative bacteria, particularly enterobacteriaceae and Neisseria. Unlike flagella, they do not possess motility, but being protein (pilin) in nature, they possess antigenic and hemagglutinating properties. They are of medical importance because some fimbriae mediate the attachment of bacteria to cells via adhesins. Bacterial fimbriae refer to common pili, to be distinguished from the preferred use of ‘pili’. Escherichia coli 
  • Opens into peritoneal cavity Peritoneal Cavity The space enclosed by the peritoneum. It is divided into two portions, the greater sac and the lesser sac or omental bursa, which lies behind the stomach. The two sacs are connected by the foramen of winslow, or epiploic foramen. Peritoneum: Anatomy
• Ampulla:
  • The widest and longest portion of the tube
  • Usual site of fertilization Fertilization To undergo fertilization, the sperm enters the uterus, travels towards the ampulla of the fallopian tube, and encounters the oocyte. The zona pellucida (the outer layer of the oocyte) deteriorates along with the zygote, which travels towards the uterus and eventually forms a blastocyst, allowing for implantation to occur. Fertilization and First Week
  • Approximately 7–8 cm long
• Isthmus:
  • Narrowing portion that approaches the uterus (at the uterine horns)
  • Thicker walls
  • Approximately 4 cm long
• Uterine portion (also called the intramural or interstitial part):
  •  Located within the uterine wall
  • Opens into uterine cavity through uterine ostium
  • Shortest segment (< 1 cm)

Ligaments

There are 5 major ligaments that attach to the uterus and/or fallopian tubes: the broad, cardinal, round, utero-ovarian, and uterosacral ligaments Uterosacral ligaments Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy.

• Broad ligament:
  • A thin sheet of peritoneum Peritoneum The peritoneum is a serous membrane lining the abdominopelvic cavity. This lining is formed by connective tissue and originates from the mesoderm. The membrane lines both the abdominal walls (as parietal peritoneum) and all of the visceral organs (as visceral peritoneum). Peritoneum: Anatomy that drapes over the uterus and fallopian tubes like a sheet hanging over a clothesline
  • Connects the pelvic organs to the lateral pelvic wall
  • Divided into 3 parts: mesosalpinx, mesovarium, and mesometrium
  • Mesosalpinx:
    • Area adjacent to the fallopian tubes
    • Contains the tubal branches of the ovarian and ascending uterine arteries Arteries Arteries are tubular collections of cells that transport oxygenated blood and nutrients from the heart to the tissues of the body. The blood passes through the arteries in order of decreasing luminal diameter, starting in the largest artery (the aorta) and ending in the small arterioles. Arteries are classified into 3 types: large elastic arteries, medium muscular arteries, and small arteries and arterioles. Arteries: Histology
  • Mesovarium:
    • Area adjacent to the ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy
    • Contains the ovarian branches of the ovarian and ascending uterine arteries Arteries Arteries are tubular collections of cells that transport oxygenated blood and nutrients from the heart to the tissues of the body. The blood passes through the arteries in order of decreasing luminal diameter, starting in the largest artery (the aorta) and ending in the small arterioles. Arteries are classified into 3 types: large elastic arteries, medium muscular arteries, and small arteries and arterioles. Arteries: Histology
  • Mesometrium:
    • Area below the utero-ovarian ligament Utero-ovarian ligament Ovaries: Anatomy
    • Inferiorly, contains the cardinal ligament and ureters Ureters One of a pair of thick-walled tubes that transports urine from the kidney pelvis to the urinary bladder. Urinary Tract: Anatomy
• Cardinal ligament (ligamentum transversum cervicis):
  • Connects the cervix with the pelvic wall
  • Found at the base of the broad ligament in the mesometrium
  • Contains the uterine vessels
• Round ligament ( ligamentum teres Ligamentum teres A cord-like remnant structure formed from the closed left fetal umbilical vein. It is located along the lower edge of the falciform ligament. Liver: Anatomy):
  • A thickening of the broad ligament off the anterior surface of the uterus
  • Connects the anterior uterine horns to the anterior abdominal wall Abdominal wall The outer margins of the abdomen, extending from the osteocartilaginous thoracic cage to the pelvis. Though its major part is muscular, the abdominal wall consists of at least seven layers: the skin, subcutaneous fat, deep fascia; abdominal muscles, transversalis fascia, extraperitoneal fat, and the parietal peritoneum. Surgical Anatomy of the Abdomen before passing through the inguinal canal Inguinal canal The tunnel in the lower anterior abdominal wall through which the spermatic cord, in the male; round ligament, in the female; nerves; and vessels pass. Its internal end is at the deep inguinal ring and its external end is at the superficial inguinal ring. Inguinal Canal: Anatomy and Hernias and terminating in the labia majora Labia majora Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy
• Utero-ovarian (UO) ligament:
  • Also known as the ovarian ligament Ovarian ligament Ovaries: Anatomy
  • Connects the uterus to the ovary 
  • A thickened portion of the broad ligament within the mesovarium
• Uterosacral ligament:
  • Connects the posteroinferior portion of the uterus (at the level of the cervix) to the sacrum Sacrum Five fused vertebrae forming a triangle-shaped structure at the back of the pelvis. It articulates superiorly with the lumbar vertebrae, inferiorly with the coccyx, and anteriorly with the ilium of the pelvis. The sacrum strengthens and stabilizes the pelvis. Vertebral Column: Anatomy
  • A thicker, stronger ligament, providing important structural support (i.e., preventing uterine prolapse Uterine prolapse Downward displacement of the uterus. It is classified in various degrees: in the first degree the uterine cervix is within the vaginal orifice; in the second degree the cervix is outside the orifice; in the third degree the entire uterus is outside the orifice. Pelvic Organ Prolapse into the vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy)

Microscopic Anatomy

Microscopic anatomy of the uterine body

Histologically, the uterus is composed of 3 layers: 

• Endometrium Endometrium The mucous membrane lining of the uterine cavity that is hormonally responsive during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes that characterize menstruation. After successful fertilization, it serves to sustain the developing embryo. Embryoblast and Trophoblast Development:
  • Innermost layer
  • A mucosal layer containing:
    • Simple columnar epithelium Simple columnar epithelium Surface Epithelium: Histology (lines the uterine cavity)
    • Tubular glands
    • Lamina propria Lamina propria Whipple’s Disease (also called stroma): made up of connective tissue Connective tissue Connective tissues originate from embryonic mesenchyme and are present throughout the body except inside the brain and spinal cord. The main function of connective tissues is to provide structural support to organs. Connective tissues consist of cells and an extracellular matrix. Connective Tissue: Histology
  • Divided into 2 layers:
    • Stratum functionalis: superficial layer that proliferates and sheds each month during the menstrual cycle Menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle is the cyclic pattern of hormonal and tissular activity that prepares a suitable uterine environment for the fertilization and implantation of an ovum. The menstrual cycle involves both an endometrial and ovarian cycle that are dependent on one another for proper functioning. There are 2 phases of the ovarian cycle and 3 phases of the endometrial cycle. Menstrual Cycle
    • Stratum basalis: deeper layer; does not shed, and regenerates the functionalis each cycle
  • Supplied by small spiral arteries Spiral arteries Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity that constrict, rupture, and bleed during menstruation Menstruation The periodic shedding of the endometrium and associated menstrual bleeding in the menstrual cycle of humans and primates. Menstruation is due to the decline in circulating progesterone, and occurs at the late luteal phase when luteolysis of the corpus luteum takes place. Menstrual Cycle
• Myometrium:
  • Middle layer
  • Thick muscular layer
  • Made up of smooth muscle and loose connective tissue Loose connective tissue Connective Tissue: Histology
  • Contains the larger branches of the neurovasculature 
• Perimetrium:
  • Also known as the serosa
  • Outer layer, which is also the visceral layer of the peritoneum Peritoneum The peritoneum is a serous membrane lining the abdominopelvic cavity. This lining is formed by connective tissue and originates from the mesoderm. The membrane lines both the abdominal walls (as parietal peritoneum) and all of the visceral organs (as visceral peritoneum). Peritoneum: Anatomy
  • Becomes the broad ligament laterally
  • Thin layer of connective tissue Connective tissue Connective tissues originate from embryonic mesenchyme and are present throughout the body except inside the brain and spinal cord. The main function of connective tissues is to provide structural support to organs. Connective tissues consist of cells and an extracellular matrix. Connective Tissue: Histology

Microscopic anatomy of the cervix

Epithelial lining:

• Ectocervix:
  • Lines the intravaginal part of the cervix; visible on speculum exam
  • Made of nonkeratinizing stratified squamous epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium Surface Epithelium: Histology
• Endocervix:
  • Lines the cervical canal
  • Simple columnar epithelium Simple columnar epithelium Surface Epithelium: Histology with cervical glands (produces mucus)
• Transitional zone Transitional zone Anal Cancer (also called the transformation zone Transformation zone Diagnostic Procedures in Gynecology):
  • The location where squamous and columnar epithelium Epithelium The epithelium is a complex of specialized cellular organizations arranged into sheets and lining cavities and covering the surfaces of the body. The cells exhibit polarity, having an apical and a basal pole. Structures important for the epithelial integrity and function involve the basement membrane, the semipermeable sheet on which the cells rest, and interdigitations, as well as cellular junctions. Surface Epithelium: Histology overlap
  • Squamocolumnar junction Squamocolumnar junction Esophagus: Anatomy: transition point at which the epithelium Epithelium The epithelium is a complex of specialized cellular organizations arranged into sheets and lining cavities and covering the surfaces of the body. The cells exhibit polarity, having an apical and a basal pole. Structures important for the epithelial integrity and function involve the basement membrane, the semipermeable sheet on which the cells rest, and interdigitations, as well as cellular junctions. Surface Epithelium: Histology becomes entirely stratified squamous (i.e., ectocervix). 
  • Site of infection with human papilloma Papilloma A circumscribed benign epithelial tumor projecting from the surrounding surface; more precisely, a benign epithelial neoplasm consisting of villous or arborescent outgrowths of fibrovascular stroma covered by neoplastic cells. Cowden Syndrome virus Virus Viruses are infectious, obligate intracellular parasites composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein capsid. Viruses can be either naked (non-enveloped) or enveloped. The classification of viruses is complex and based on many factors, including type and structure of the nucleoid and capsid, the presence of an envelope, the replication cycle, and the host range. Virology ( HPV HPV Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a nonenveloped, circular, double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the Papillomaviridae family. Humans are the only reservoir, and transmission occurs through close skin-to-skin or sexual contact. Human papillomaviruses infect basal epithelial cells and can affect cell-regulatory proteins to result in cell proliferation. Papillomavirus (HPV)), metaplasia Metaplasia A condition in which there is a change of one adult cell type to another similar adult cell type. Cellular Adaptation, and most cervical cancers

Stroma:

• Made up primarily of fibroelastic connective tissue Connective tissue Connective tissues originate from embryonic mesenchyme and are present throughout the body except inside the brain and spinal cord. The main function of connective tissues is to provide structural support to organs. Connective tissues consist of cells and an extracellular matrix. Connective Tissue: Histology
• < 10% smooth muscle 
• Necessary for the stretching capacity during childbirth

Microscopic anatomy of the fallopian tubes

The fallopian tubes have 3 layers:

• Mucosa:
  • Simple columnar epithelium Simple columnar epithelium Surface Epithelium: Histology and lamina propria Lamina propria Whipple’s Disease
  • Heavily folded
  • Ciliated cells:
    • Assist in movement of sperm, oocytes Oocytes Female germ cells derived from oogonia and termed oocytes when they enter meiosis. The primary oocytes begin meiosis but are arrested at the diplotene state until ovulation at puberty to give rise to haploid secondary oocytes or ova (ovum). Ovaries: Anatomy, and embryos
    • Cilia beat more strongly in the presence of estrogen Estrogen Compounds that interact with estrogen receptors in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of estradiol. Estrogens stimulate the female reproductive organs, and the development of secondary female sex characteristics. Estrogenic chemicals include natural, synthetic, steroidal, or non-steroidal compounds. Ovaries: Anatomy
  • Peg cells (< 10%):
    • Nonciliated, secretory cells
    • Secretions are primarily under the influence of estrogen Estrogen Compounds that interact with estrogen receptors in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of estradiol. Estrogens stimulate the female reproductive organs, and the development of secondary female sex characteristics. Estrogenic chemicals include natural, synthetic, steroidal, or non-steroidal compounds. Ovaries: Anatomy
    • Secrete nutritious fluid to support fertilization Fertilization To undergo fertilization, the sperm enters the uterus, travels towards the ampulla of the fallopian tube, and encounters the oocyte. The zona pellucida (the outer layer of the oocyte) deteriorates along with the zygote, which travels towards the uterus and eventually forms a blastocyst, allowing for implantation to occur. Fertilization and First Week
• Muscular layer:
  • Smooth muscle
  • ↑ Concentrations of estrogen Estrogen Compounds that interact with estrogen receptors in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of estradiol. Estrogens stimulate the female reproductive organs, and the development of secondary female sex characteristics. Estrogenic chemicals include natural, synthetic, steroidal, or non-steroidal compounds. Ovaries: Anatomy present around ovulation Ovulation The discharge of an ovum from a rupturing follicle in the ovary. Menstrual Cycle stimulate peristaltic waves of contraction → enhances movement of sperm, oocytes Oocytes Female germ cells derived from oogonia and termed oocytes when they enter meiosis. The primary oocytes begin meiosis but are arrested at the diplotene state until ovulation at puberty to give rise to haploid secondary oocytes or ova (ovum). Ovaries: Anatomy, and embryos 
  • Contains an inner circular and outer longitudinal layer
• Serosa:
  • Thin outer layer made up of connective tissue Connective tissue Connective tissues originate from embryonic mesenchyme and are present throughout the body except inside the brain and spinal cord. The main function of connective tissues is to provide structural support to organs. Connective tissues consist of cells and an extracellular matrix. Connective Tissue: Histology
  • This visceral peritoneum Visceral peritoneum Peritoneum: Anatomy (i.e., broad ligament) covers the tubes.

Neurovasculature

Vasculature

The primary blood supply to the uterus is via the uterine artery. The fallopian tubes are supplied by the anastomosis between the uterine and ovarian arteries Arteries Arteries are tubular collections of cells that transport oxygenated blood and nutrients from the heart to the tissues of the body. The blood passes through the arteries in order of decreasing luminal diameter, starting in the largest artery (the aorta) and ending in the small arterioles. Arteries are classified into 3 types: large elastic arteries, medium muscular arteries, and small arteries and arterioles. Arteries: Histology.

• Uterine artery:
  • A branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery
  • Located within the broad ligament near the level of the cervix
  • Approaches the uterus at a 90-degree angle at the level of the internal cervical os → splits into ascending and descending branches
    • These branches run longitudinally along the lateral edges of the uterine body and cervix.
    • Ascending branches: anastomose with the ovarian artery
    • Descending branches: anastomose with branches off the vaginal artery Vaginal artery Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy
• Ovarian artery:
  • Originates directly from the aorta Aorta The main trunk of the systemic arteries. Mediastinum and Great Vessels: Anatomy 
  • Runs along the pelvic wall → reaches the lateral side of the ovary 
  • Splits into ovarian and tubal branches:
    • Both branches anastomose with the ascending branch of the uterine artery.
    • The tubal branch is often referred to as the utero-ovarian artery.
• Supplying the myometrium and endometrium Endometrium The mucous membrane lining of the uterine cavity that is hormonally responsive during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes that characterize menstruation. After successful fertilization, it serves to sustain the developing embryo. Embryoblast and Trophoblast Development:
  • Arcuate arteries Arteries Arteries are tubular collections of cells that transport oxygenated blood and nutrients from the heart to the tissues of the body. The blood passes through the arteries in order of decreasing luminal diameter, starting in the largest artery (the aorta) and ending in the small arterioles. Arteries are classified into 3 types: large elastic arteries, medium muscular arteries, and small arteries and arterioles. Arteries: Histology:
    • Branch off the ascending and descending uterine arteries Arteries Arteries are tubular collections of cells that transport oxygenated blood and nutrients from the heart to the tissues of the body. The blood passes through the arteries in order of decreasing luminal diameter, starting in the largest artery (the aorta) and ending in the small arterioles. Arteries are classified into 3 types: large elastic arteries, medium muscular arteries, and small arteries and arterioles. Arteries: Histology at an approximately 90-degree angle 
    • Travel in a rough circle around the uterus (in a transverse plane Transverse plane Anterior Abdominal Wall: Anatomy) 
    • Anastomose with arcuate arteries Arteries Arteries are tubular collections of cells that transport oxygenated blood and nutrients from the heart to the tissues of the body. The blood passes through the arteries in order of decreasing luminal diameter, starting in the largest artery (the aorta) and ending in the small arterioles. Arteries are classified into 3 types: large elastic arteries, medium muscular arteries, and small arteries and arterioles. Arteries: Histology coming from the oppose side
    • Give off smaller spiral arteries Spiral arteries Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity
  • Spiral arteries Spiral arteries Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity:
    • Tortuous vessels that supply the endometrium Endometrium The mucous membrane lining of the uterine cavity that is hormonally responsive during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes that characterize menstruation. After successful fertilization, it serves to sustain the developing embryo. Embryoblast and Trophoblast Development between the glands
    • Rupture and constrict during menses Menses The periodic shedding of the endometrium and associated menstrual bleeding in the menstrual cycle of humans and primates. Menstruation is due to the decline in circulating progesterone, and occurs at the late luteal phase when luteolysis of the corpus luteum takes place. Menstrual Cycle → menstrual bleeding, ischemia Ischemia A hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation. Ischemic Cell Damage, and endometrial shedding

Venous drainage

• Uterine body:
  • Via the uterine venous plexus, which runs down the lateral side of the uterus
  • Located in the broad ligament near the level of the cervix
  • Drains into the uterine vein → into the internal iliac vein
• Fallopian tubes: drain via tubal veins Veins Veins are tubular collections of cells, which transport deoxygenated blood and waste from the capillary beds back to the heart. Veins are classified into 3 types: small veins/venules, medium veins, and large veins. Each type contains 3 primary layers: tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. Veins: Histology → ovarian veins Veins Veins are tubular collections of cells, which transport deoxygenated blood and waste from the capillary beds back to the heart. Veins are classified into 3 types: small veins/venules, medium veins, and large veins. Each type contains 3 primary layers: tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. Veins: Histology
  • Right ovarian vein → directly into the inferior vena cava Inferior vena cava The venous trunk which receives blood from the lower extremities and from the pelvic and abdominal organs. Mediastinum and Great Vessels: Anatomy ( IVC IVC The venous trunk which receives blood from the lower extremities and from the pelvic and abdominal organs. Mediastinum and Great Vessels: Anatomy)
  • Left ovarian vein → renal vein Renal vein Short thick veins which return blood from the kidneys to the vena cava. Glomerular Filtration → IVC IVC The venous trunk which receives blood from the lower extremities and from the pelvic and abdominal organs. Mediastinum and Great Vessels: Anatomy

Lymphatic drainage

The primary lymphatic drainage for each section of the uterus and fallopian tubes is through:

• Fallopian tubes:
  • Para-aortic nodes (follows drainage of the ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy)
  • Internal iliac nodes
  • Inguinal nodes (via the broad ligament)
• Fundus Fundus The superior portion of the body of the stomach above the level of the cardiac notch. Stomach: Anatomy:
  • Para-aortic nodes 
  • Superficial inguinal nodes (areas near the round ligaments)
• Uterine body: external iliac nodes 
• Cervix:
  • Internal iliac nodes 
  • Sacral nodes (especially areas near the uterosacral ligaments Uterosacral ligaments Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy)
  • Obturator nodes

Innervation

The uterus and tubes are innervated by the autonomic nervous system Autonomic nervous system The ANS is a component of the peripheral nervous system that uses both afferent (sensory) and efferent (effector) neurons, which control the functioning of the internal organs and involuntary processes via connections with the CNS. The ANS consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Autonomic Nervous System: Anatomy ( ANS ANS The ans is a component of the peripheral nervous system that uses both afferent (sensory) and efferent (effector) neurons, which control the functioning of the internal organs and involuntary processes via connections with the CNS. The ans consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Autonomic Nervous System: Anatomy). Nerve fibers Nerve Fibers Slender processes of neurons, including the axons and their glial envelopes (myelin sheath). Nerve fibers conduct nerve impulses to and from the central nervous system. Nervous System: Histology of the ANS ANS The ans is a component of the peripheral nervous system that uses both afferent (sensory) and efferent (effector) neurons, which control the functioning of the internal organs and involuntary processes via connections with the CNS. The ans consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Autonomic Nervous System: Anatomy pass via splanchnic nerves → inferior hypogastric plexus → uterovaginal plexus

• Sympathetic fibers:
  • Pass via lumbar splanchnic nerves 
  • Arise from levels T10–L2
• Parasympathetic fibers:
  • Pass via pelvic splanchnic nerves
  • Arise from levels S2 S2 Heart Sounds– S4 S4 Heart Sounds
• Visceral afferent Afferent Neurons which conduct nerve impulses to the central nervous system. Nervous System: Histology pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways fibers (labor, menstrual cramps Cramps Ion Channel Myopathy):
  • Intraperitoneal Intraperitoneal Peritoneum: Anatomy structures (tubes, fundus Fundus The superior portion of the body of the stomach above the level of the cardiac notch. Stomach: Anatomy, uterine body):
    • Follow the sympathetic innervation in a retrograde direction
    • Visceral uterine pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways from labor is felt in the T10–L2 dermatomes Dermatomes Spinal Cord: Anatomy
  • Subperitoneal structures (lower uterus/cervix):
    • Follow the parasympathetic innervation in a retrograde direction
    • Visceral cervical pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways from labor is felt in the S2 S2 Heart Sounds– S4 S4 Heart Sounds dermatomes Dermatomes Spinal Cord: Anatomy
• Visceral afferent Afferent Neurons which conduct nerve impulses to the central nervous system. Nervous System: Histology fibers unrelated to pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways: follow the parasympathetic innervation

Clinical Relevance

Related anatomical structures

• Pelvis Pelvis The pelvis consists of the bony pelvic girdle, the muscular and ligamentous pelvic floor, and the pelvic cavity, which contains viscera, vessels, and multiple nerves and muscles. The pelvic girdle, composed of 2 “hip” bones and the sacrum, is a ring-like bony structure of the axial skeleton that links the vertebral column with the lower extremities. Pelvis: Anatomy: consists of the pelvic girdle, pelvic cavity, pelvic floor Pelvic floor Soft tissue formed mainly by the pelvic diaphragm, which is composed of the two levator ani and two coccygeus muscles. The pelvic diaphragm lies just below the pelvic aperture (outlet) and separates the pelvic cavity from the perineum. It extends between the pubic bone anteriorly and the coccyx posteriorly. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy, and all the viscera, vessels, and muscles contained within. The pelvic cavity houses various GI and urogenital structures. 
• Ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy: paired gonads Gonads The gamete-producing glands, ovary or testis. Hormones: Overview and Types of the female reproductive system. The ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy are located intraperitoneally in the lesser pelvis Lesser pelvis The part of the pelvis, inferior to the pelvic brim, that comprises both the pelvic cavity and the part of the perineum lying inferior to the pelvic diaphragm. Pelvis: Anatomy, just posterior to the broad ligament. 
• Vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy and vulva Vulva The vulva is the external genitalia of the female and includes the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vestibule, vestibular bulb, and greater vestibular glands. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy: The vulva Vulva The vulva is the external genitalia of the female and includes the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vestibule, vestibular bulb, and greater vestibular glands. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy is the external female genitalia and includes the mons pubis Mons pubis Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy, labia majora Labia majora Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy, labia minora Labia minora Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy, clitoris Clitoris An erectile structure homologous with the penis, situated beneath the anterior labial commissure, partially hidden between the anterior ends of the labia minora. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy, vestibule Vestibule An oval, bony chamber of the inner ear, part of the bony labyrinth. It is continuous with bony cochlea anteriorly, and semicircular canals posteriorly. The vestibule contains two communicating sacs (utricle and saccule) of the balancing apparatus. The oval window on its lateral wall is occupied by the base of the stapes of the middle ear. Ear: Anatomy, vestibular bulb, and the greater vestibular glands Greater vestibular glands Mucus-secreting glands situated on the posterior and lateral aspect of the vestibule of the vagina. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy. The vagina Vagina The vagina is the female genital canal, extending from the vulva externally to the cervix uteri internally. The structures have sexual, reproductive, and urinary functions and a rich blood supply, mainly arising from the internal iliac artery. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy is the genital canal in the female, extending from the vulva Vulva The vulva is the external genitalia of the female and includes the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vestibule, vestibular bulb, and greater vestibular glands. Vagina, Vulva, and Pelvic Floor: Anatomy to the cervix uteri.

Physiology

• Menstrual cycle Menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle is the cyclic pattern of hormonal and tissular activity that prepares a suitable uterine environment for the fertilization and implantation of an ovum. The menstrual cycle involves both an endometrial and ovarian cycle that are dependent on one another for proper functioning. There are 2 phases of the ovarian cycle and 3 phases of the endometrial cycle. Menstrual Cycle: cyclic pattern of hormonal and tissular activity responsible for the preparation of a suitable uterine environment for the implantation Implantation Endometrial implantation of embryo, mammalian at the blastocyst stage. Fertilization and First Week and development of a fertilized embryo Embryo The entity of a developing mammal, generally from the cleavage of a zygote to the end of embryonic differentiation of basic structures. For the human embryo, this represents the first two months of intrauterine development preceding the stages of the fetus. Fertilization and First Week
• Pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care: fertilization Fertilization To undergo fertilization, the sperm enters the uterus, travels towards the ampulla of the fallopian tube, and encounters the oocyte. The zona pellucida (the outer layer of the oocyte) deteriorates along with the zygote, which travels towards the uterus and eventually forms a blastocyst, allowing for implantation to occur. Fertilization and First Week of the ovum and implantation Implantation Endometrial implantation of embryo, mammalian at the blastocyst stage. Fertilization and First Week into the uterine wall. Pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care usually lasts 40 weeks from the 1st day of the last menstrual period Last menstrual period The 1st day of a woman’s last menstrual period. By convention, this date is usually used to date pregnancies. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care. Numerous physiologic changes to the uterus and many other organs occur during pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care.

Clinical evaluation

• Diagnostic procedures in gynecology Diagnostic procedures in gynecology Diagnostic procedures in gynecology are useful in identifying the presence of disease, determining the progression of disease, and monitoring the response of the organs to treatment. The major diagnostic procedures include speculum examinations, sonography (ultrasound), colposcopy, and cervical biopsy. Diagnostic Procedures in Gynecology: includes, among others, Pap smears and colposcopy Colposcopy The examination, therapy or surgery of the cervix and vagina by means of a specially designed endoscope introduced vaginally. Cervical Cancer Screening for the screening Screening Preoperative Care and diagnosis of cervical cancer Cervical cancer Cervical cancer, or invasive cervical carcinoma (ICC), is the 3rd most common cancer in women in the world, with > 50% of the cases being fatal. In the United States, ICC is the 13th most common cancer and the cause of < 3% of all cancer deaths due to the slow progression of precursor lesions and, more importantly, effective cancer screening. Cervical Cancer, invasive uterine tests for the diagnosis of pelvic conditions such as uterine biopsies, and mammography Mammography Radiographic examination of the breast. Breast Cancer Screening for the diagnosis of breast conditions. 
• Imaging of the uterus and ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy: to assess abnormal uterine bleeding Abnormal Uterine Bleeding Abnormal uterine bleeding is the medical term for abnormalities in the frequency, volume, duration, and regularity of the menstrual cycle. Abnormal uterine bleeding is classified using the acronym PALM-COEIN, with PALM representing the structural causes and COEIN indicating the non-structural causes. Abnormal Uterine Bleeding, pelvic pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways, and other suspected pelvic pathologies. The 1st-line imaging method of choice for the uterus and ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy is almost always ultrasonography.

Uterine disorders

• Congenital uterine abnormalities (müllerian anomalies): usually due to abnormal fusion of the paramesonephric ducts Paramesonephric ducts A pair of ducts near the wolffian ducts in a developing embryo. In the male embryo, they degenerate with the appearance of testicular anti-mullerian hormone. In the absence of anti-mullerian hormone, mullerian ducts give rise to the female reproductive tract, including the oviducts; uterus; cervix; and vagina. Development of the Urogenital System, incomplete regression Regression Corneal Abrasions, Erosion, and Ulcers of the longitudinal septum, or complete agenesis Agenesis Teratogenic Birth Defects of part of the structures. Individuals may present with recurrent pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care loss, infertility Infertility Infertility is the inability to conceive in the context of regular intercourse. The most common causes of infertility in women are related to ovulatory dysfunction or tubal obstruction, whereas, in men, abnormal sperm is a common cause. Infertility, preterm delivery, breech presentation Breech presentation A malpresentation of the fetus at near term or during obstetric labor with the fetal cephalic pole in the fundus of the uterus. There are three types of breech: the complete breech with flexed hips and knees; the incomplete breech with one or both hips partially or fully extended; the frank breech with flexed hips and extended knees. Fetal Malpresentation and Malposition, or placental abruption Placental Abruption Premature separation of the normally implanted placenta from the uterus. Signs of varying degree of severity include uterine bleeding, uterine muscle hypertonia, and fetal distress or fetal death. Antepartum Hemorrhage. Surgical repair is possible in certain cases.
• Endometrial hyperplasia Hyperplasia An increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ without tumor formation. It differs from hypertrophy, which is an increase in bulk without an increase in the number of cells. Cellular Adaptation (EH) and endometrial cancer (EC): Endometrial hyperplasia Hyperplasia An increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ without tumor formation. It differs from hypertrophy, which is an increase in bulk without an increase in the number of cells. Cellular Adaptation is abnormal growth of the uterine endometrium Endometrium The mucous membrane lining of the uterine cavity that is hormonally responsive during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes that characterize menstruation. After successful fertilization, it serves to sustain the developing embryo. Embryoblast and Trophoblast Development, which is usually due to abnormal estrogen Estrogen Compounds that interact with estrogen receptors in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of estradiol. Estrogens stimulate the female reproductive organs, and the development of secondary female sex characteristics. Estrogenic chemicals include natural, synthetic, steroidal, or non-steroidal compounds. Ovaries: Anatomy stimulation or genetic mutations Genetic Mutations Carcinogenesis leading to uncontrolled proliferation. Endometrial cancer Endometrial Cancer Endometrial carcinoma (EC) is the most common gynecologic malignancy in the developed world, and it has several histologic types. Endometrioid carcinoma (known as type 1 EC) typically develops from atypical endometrial hyperplasia, is hormonally responsive, and carries a favorable prognosis. Endometrial Hyperplasia and Endometrial Cancer is the most common gynecologic malignancy Malignancy Hemothorax in the developed world. The diagnosis is histologic, and management most often involves surgery, hormonal therapy, and adjuvant Adjuvant Substances that augment, stimulate, activate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response at either the cellular or humoral level. The classical agents (freund’s adjuvant, bcg, corynebacterium parvum, et al.) contain bacterial antigens. Some are endogenous (e.g., histamine, interferon, transfer factor, tuftsin, interleukin-1). Their mode of action is either non-specific, resulting in increased immune responsiveness to a wide variety of antigens, or antigen-specific, i.e., affecting a restricted type of immune response to a narrow group of antigens. The therapeutic efficacy of many biological response modifiers is related to their antigen-specific immunoadjuvanticity. Vaccination radiation Radiation Emission or propagation of acoustic waves (sound), electromagnetic energy waves (such as light; radio waves; gamma rays; or x-rays), or a stream of subatomic particles (such as electrons; neutrons; protons; or alpha particles). Osteosarcoma therapy (for advanced disease).
• Menstrual cycle Menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle is the cyclic pattern of hormonal and tissular activity that prepares a suitable uterine environment for the fertilization and implantation of an ovum. The menstrual cycle involves both an endometrial and ovarian cycle that are dependent on one another for proper functioning. There are 2 phases of the ovarian cycle and 3 phases of the endometrial cycle. Menstrual Cycle abnormalities: alterations in frequency, volume, and/or duration of the menstrual cycle Menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle is the cyclic pattern of hormonal and tissular activity that prepares a suitable uterine environment for the fertilization and implantation of an ovum. The menstrual cycle involves both an endometrial and ovarian cycle that are dependent on one another for proper functioning. There are 2 phases of the ovarian cycle and 3 phases of the endometrial cycle. Menstrual Cycle that are usually associated with the term abnormal uterine bleeding Abnormal Uterine Bleeding Abnormal uterine bleeding is the medical term for abnormalities in the frequency, volume, duration, and regularity of the menstrual cycle. Abnormal uterine bleeding is classified using the acronym PALM-COEIN, with PALM representing the structural causes and COEIN indicating the non-structural causes. Abnormal Uterine Bleeding ( AUB AUB Abnormal uterine bleeding is the medical term for abnormalities in the frequency, volume, duration, and regularity of the menstrual cycle. Abnormal uterine bleeding is classified using the acronym palm-coein, with palm representing the structural causes and coein indicating the non-structural causes. Abnormal Uterine Bleeding).
• Endometrial polyps Endometrial polyps Endometrial polyps are pedunculated or sessile projections of the endometrium that result from overgrowth of endometrial glands and stroma around a central vascular stalk. Endometrial polyps are a few millimeters to a few centimeters in size, can occur anywhere within the uterine cavity, and, while usually benign, can be malignant, particularly in postmenopausal women. Endometrial Polyps: pedunculated or sessile projections of the endometrium Endometrium The mucous membrane lining of the uterine cavity that is hormonally responsive during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes that characterize menstruation. After successful fertilization, it serves to sustain the developing embryo. Embryoblast and Trophoblast Development that result from overgrowth of endometrial glands and stroma around a central vascular stalk. Endometrial polyps Endometrial polyps Endometrial polyps are pedunculated or sessile projections of the endometrium that result from overgrowth of endometrial glands and stroma around a central vascular stalk. Endometrial polyps are a few millimeters to a few centimeters in size, can occur anywhere within the uterine cavity, and, while usually benign, can be malignant, particularly in postmenopausal women. Endometrial Polyps present with AUB AUB Abnormal uterine bleeding is the medical term for abnormalities in the frequency, volume, duration, and regularity of the menstrual cycle. Abnormal uterine bleeding is classified using the acronym palm-coein, with palm representing the structural causes and coein indicating the non-structural causes. Abnormal Uterine Bleeding or postmenopausal bleeding, though many are asymptomatic and discovered incidentally. These polyps are best diagnosed with saline infusion sonography Sonography The visualization of deep structures of the body by recording the reflections or echoes of ultrasonic pulses directed into the tissues. Use of ultrasound for imaging or diagnostic purposes employs frequencies ranging from 1. 6 to 10 megahertz. Diagnostic Procedures in Gynecology ( SIS SIS Infertility) and are usually treated with hysteroscopic resection. 
• Uterine leiomyomas: also known fibroids Fibroids A benign tumor derived from smooth muscle tissue, also known as a fibroid tumor. They rarely occur outside of the uterus and the gastrointestinal tract but can occur in the skin and subcutaneous tissue, probably arising from the smooth muscle of small blood vessels in these tissues. Infertility. Uterine leiomyomas are common, benign Benign Fibroadenoma, myometrial neoplasms Neoplasms New abnormal growth of tissue. Malignant neoplasms show a greater degree of anaplasia and have the properties of invasion and metastasis, compared to benign neoplasms. Benign Bone Tumors that typically present with AUB AUB Abnormal uterine bleeding is the medical term for abnormalities in the frequency, volume, duration, and regularity of the menstrual cycle. Abnormal uterine bleeding is classified using the acronym palm-coein, with palm representing the structural causes and coein indicating the non-structural causes. Abnormal Uterine Bleeding, dysmenorrhea, and/or pelvic pressure/bulk symptoms. Uterine leiomyomas are usually diagnosed on pelvic ultrasonography and are best treated surgically if symptomatic.
• Endometriosis Endometriosis Endometriosis is a common disease in which patients have endometrial tissue implanted outside of the uterus. Endometrial implants can occur anywhere in the pelvis, including the ovaries, the broad and uterosacral ligaments, the pelvic peritoneum, and the urinary and gastrointestinal tracts. Endometriosis: common disease in which ectopic normal endometrial tissue Endometrial tissue The mucous membrane lining of the uterine cavity that is hormonally responsive during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes that characterize menstruation. After successful fertilization, it serves to sustain the developing embryo. Endometriosis is implanted outside the uterus. Individuals present with severe dysmenorrhea and/or other pelvic pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways symptoms, such as dyspareunia Dyspareunia Recurrent genital pain occurring during, before, or after sexual intercourse in either the male or the female. Primary Ovarian Insufficiency. Bleeding patterns are frequently normal.

Cervical disorders

Cervical cancer Cervical cancer Cervical cancer, or invasive cervical carcinoma (ICC), is the 3rd most common cancer in women in the world, with > 50% of the cases being fatal. In the United States, ICC is the 13th most common cancer and the cause of < 3% of all cancer deaths due to the slow progression of precursor lesions and, more importantly, effective cancer screening. Cervical Cancer: typically arises from the transformation zone Transformation zone Diagnostic Procedures in Gynecology out of premalignant lesions due to infection with high-risk HPV HPV Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a nonenveloped, circular, double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the Papillomaviridae family. Humans are the only reservoir, and transmission occurs through close skin-to-skin or sexual contact. Human papillomaviruses infect basal epithelial cells and can affect cell-regulatory proteins to result in cell proliferation. Papillomavirus (HPV) strains. Early cervical neoplasia is asymptomatic, though it may present with contact bleeding (e.g., bleeding with intercourse). Diagnosis is often made by routine screening Screening Preoperative Care with a cervical Pap smear Pap smear Cytological preparation of cells collected from a mucosal surface and stained with Papanicolaou stain. Cervical Cancer Screening with cytology and high-risk human papillomavirus Human papillomavirus Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a nonenveloped, circular, double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the Papillomaviridae family. Humans are the only reservoir, and transmission occurs through close skin-to-skin or sexual contact. Human papillomaviruses infect basal epithelial cells and can affect cell-regulatory proteins to result in cell proliferation. Papillomavirus (HPV) (hrHPV) testing, and biopsy Biopsy Removal and pathologic examination of specimens from the living body. Ewing Sarcoma.

Fallopian tube disorders

• Ectopic pregnancy Ectopic pregnancy Ectopic pregnancy refers to the implantation of a fertilized egg (embryo) outside the uterine cavity. The main cause is disruption of the normal anatomy of the fallopian tube. Ectopic Pregnancy: implantation Implantation Endometrial implantation of embryo, mammalian at the blastocyst stage. Fertilization and First Week of the blastocyst Blastocyst A post-morula preimplantation mammalian embryo that develops from a 32-cell stage into a fluid-filled hollow ball of over a hundred cells. A blastocyst has two distinctive tissues. The outer layer of trophoblasts gives rise to extra-embryonic tissues. The inner cell mass gives rise to the embryonic disc and eventual embryo proper. Fertilization and First Week outside the uterine cavity. Individuals usually present with severe pelvic pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways (may be unilateral), vaginal bleeding, and a positive pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care test. If the tube ruptures with the growing pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care, life-threatening hemorrhage can result. Diagnosis is made with ultrasonography and trending hCG levels. Management may be medical, with methotrexate Methotrexate An antineoplastic antimetabolite with immunosuppressant properties. It is an inhibitor of tetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase and prevents the formation of tetrahydrofolate, necessary for synthesis of thymidylate, an essential component of DNA. Antimetabolite Chemotherapy, or surgical, with resection.
• Pelvic inflammatory disease Pelvic inflammatory disease Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is defined as a polymicrobial infection of the upper female reproductive system. The disease can affect the uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and adjacent structures. Pelvic inflammatory disease is closely linked with sexually transmitted diseases, most commonly caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Gardnerella vaginalis. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease ( PID PID Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is defined as a polymicrobial infection of the upper female reproductive system. The disease can affect the uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and adjacent structures. Pelvic inflammatory disease is closely linked with sexually transmitted diseases, most commonly caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and gardnerella vaginalis. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease): defined as a polymicrobial infection of the upper female reproductive system. This disease can affect the uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries Ovaries Ovaries are the paired gonads of the female reproductive system that contain haploid gametes known as oocytes. The ovaries are located intraperitoneally in the pelvis, just posterior to the broad ligament, and are connected to the pelvic sidewall and to the uterus by ligaments. These organs function to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and to produce the female germ cells (oocytes). Ovaries: Anatomy, and adjacent structures and is often (though not always) caused by ascending cervicovaginal infections Infections Invasion of the host organism by microorganisms or their toxins or by parasites that can cause pathological conditions or diseases. Chronic Granulomatous Disease, most commonly from Chlamydia trachomatis Chlamydia trachomatis Type species of Chlamydia causing a variety of ocular and urogenital diseases. Chlamydia, Neisseria gonorrhoeae Neisseria gonorrhoeae A species of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria primarily found in purulent venereal discharges. It is the causative agent of gonorrhea. Neisseria, and organisms associated with bacterial vaginosis Bacterial vaginosis Polymicrobial, nonspecific vaginitis associated with positive cultures of gardnerella vaginalis and other anaerobic organisms and a decrease in lactobacilli. It remains unclear whether the initial pathogenic event is caused by the growth of anaerobes or a primary decrease in lactobacilli. Vulvovaginitis, such as Gardnerella vaginalis Gardnerella vaginalis Polymicrobial, nonspecific vaginitis associated with positive cultures of gardnerella vaginalis and other anaerobic organisms and a decrease in lactobacilli. It remains unclear whether the initial pathogenic event is caused by the growth of anaerobes or a primary decrease in lactobacilli. Vulvovaginitis. Management is with antibiotics.