Rhinitis

Epidemiology and Etiology

Epidemiology

• Infectious rhinitis (“ common cold Common cold A catarrhal disorder of the upper respiratory tract, which may be viral or a mixed infection. It generally involves a runny nose, nasal congestion, and sneezing. Rhinovirus” or upper respiratory infection (URI)):
  • Most common form
  • Common in children. Estimated incidence Incidence The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from prevalence, which refers to all cases in the population at a given time. Measures of Disease Frequency: 6 episodes per patient per year
  • Approximately 8% of URIs are complicated by rhinosinusitis in children aged 6–35 months.
  • Genetic disorders, such as Kartagener syndrome Kartagener syndrome An autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a triad of dextrocardia; infertility; and sinusitis. The syndrome is caused by mutations of dynein genes encoding motility proteins which are components of sperm tails, and cilia in the respiratory and the reproductive tracts. Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia (with immobile cilia) impair mucosal ciliary movement and predispose individuals to recurrent rhinosinusitis episodes.
• Allergic rhinitis:
  • Most common type of rhinitis
  • Occurs in approximately 10%–30% of adults and up to 40% of children annually in the United States
  • Increased risk in individuals with atopy Atopy Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema), including eczema Eczema Atopic dermatitis, also known as eczema, is a chronic, relapsing, pruritic, inflammatory skin disease that occurs more frequently in children, although adults can also be affected. The condition is often associated with elevated serum levels of IgE and a personal or family history of atopy. Skin dryness, erythema, oozing, crusting, and lichenification are present. Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema) or asthma Asthma Asthma is a chronic inflammatory respiratory condition characterized by bronchial hyperresponsiveness and airflow obstruction. The disease is believed to result from the complex interaction of host and environmental factors that increase disease predisposition, with inflammation causing symptoms and structural changes. Patients typically present with wheezing, cough, and dyspnea. Asthma
• Non-allergic rhinitis:
  • Affects up to approximately 7% of the population in the United States
  • Occurs later in life than allergic rhinitis
  • 70% of patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship present > 20 years of age; more common in females

Etiology

Pathophysiology

Infectious rhinitis

• Viruses Viruses Minute infectious agents whose genomes are composed of DNA or RNA, but not both. They are characterized by a lack of independent metabolism and the inability to replicate outside living host cells. Virology typically use intercellular adhesion Adhesion The process whereby platelets adhere to something other than platelets, e.g., collagen; basement membrane; microfibrils; or other ‘foreign’ surfaces. Coagulation Studies molecule-1 host receptor Receptor Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors to enter into nasal epithelial cells. 
• Signaling within cells occurs via NF-kB leading to the elaboration of pro-inflammatory cytokines Cytokines Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner. Adaptive Immune Response, which leads to:
  • Plasma Plasma The residual portion of blood that is left after removal of blood cells by centrifugation without prior blood coagulation. Transfusion Products exudation from submucosal capillaries Capillaries Capillaries are the primary structures in the circulatory system that allow the exchange of gas, nutrients, and other materials between the blood and the extracellular fluid (ECF). Capillaries are the smallest of the blood vessels. Because a capillary diameter is so small, only 1 RBC may pass through at a time. Capillaries: Histology
  • Recruitment Recruitment Skeletal Muscle Contraction of polymorphonuclear cells to nasal epithelium Epithelium The epithelium is a complex of specialized cellular organizations arranged into sheets and lining cavities and covering the surfaces of the body. The cells exhibit polarity, having an apical and a basal pole. Structures important for the epithelial integrity and function involve the basement membrane, the semipermeable sheet on which the cells rest, and interdigitations, as well as cellular junctions. Surface Epithelium: Histology via interleukin-8
• Local production of cytokines Cytokines Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner. Adaptive Immune Response and kinins results in the classic symptoms of infectious rhinitis/the common cold Common cold A catarrhal disorder of the upper respiratory tract, which may be viral or a mixed infection. It generally involves a runny nose, nasal congestion, and sneezing. Rhinovirus.

Allergic rhinitis

Type I hypersensitivity reaction Type I hypersensitivity reaction Type I hypersensitivity reaction is an abnormal immune response triggered by exposure to specific antigens known as allergens. In this type of hypersensitivity reaction, the presentation of the antigen to the T-helper cells (Th cells) initiates a cascade of immunologic events leading to the production of antigen-specific IgE antibodies. Type I Hypersensitivity Reaction triggers inflammation Inflammation Inflammation is a complex set of responses to infection and injury involving leukocytes as the principal cellular mediators in the body’s defense against pathogenic organisms. Inflammation is also seen as a response to tissue injury in the process of wound healing. The 5 cardinal signs of inflammation are pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Inflammation in the nose Nose The nose is the human body’s primary organ of smell and functions as part of the upper respiratory system. The nose may be best known for inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide, but it also contributes to other important functions, such as tasting. The anatomy of the nose can be divided into the external nose and the nasal cavity. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal), which is immunoglobulin E ( IgE IgE An immunoglobulin associated with mast cells. Overexpression has been associated with allergic hypersensitivity. Immunoglobulins: Types and Functions)-mediated.

• After initial exposure to an allergen in atopic individuals, IgE antibodies IgE antibodies An immunoglobulin associated with mast cells. Overexpression has been associated with allergic hypersensitivity. Type I Hypersensitivity Reaction bind BIND Hyperbilirubinemia of the Newborn to IgE IgE An immunoglobulin associated with mast cells. Overexpression has been associated with allergic hypersensitivity. Immunoglobulins: Types and Functions receptors Receptors Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors on mast cells Mast cells Granulated cells that are found in almost all tissues, most abundantly in the skin and the gastrointestinal tract. Like the basophils, mast cells contain large amounts of histamine and heparin. Unlike basophils, mast cells normally remain in the tissues and do not circulate in the blood. Mast cells, derived from the bone marrow stem cells, are regulated by the stem cell factor. Innate Immunity: Phagocytes and Antigen Presentation throughout the respiratory mucosa and to basophils Basophils Granular leukocytes characterized by a relatively pale-staining, lobate nucleus and cytoplasm containing coarse dark-staining granules of variable size and stainable by basic dyes. Innate Immunity: Phagocytes and Antigen Presentation in the peripheral blood.
• B cells B cells Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation. B cells: Types and Functions then differentiate into plasma Plasma The residual portion of blood that is left after removal of blood cells by centrifugation without prior blood coagulation. Transfusion Products cells and produce IgE antibodies IgE antibodies An immunoglobulin associated with mast cells. Overexpression has been associated with allergic hypersensitivity. Type I Hypersensitivity Reaction specific to the antigen Antigen Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction. Vaccination.
• When the same allergen is inhaled, IgE antibodies IgE antibodies An immunoglobulin associated with mast cells. Overexpression has been associated with allergic hypersensitivity. Type I Hypersensitivity Reaction are bridged by the allergen’s antigen Antigen Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction. Vaccination.
• Mast cells Mast cells Granulated cells that are found in almost all tissues, most abundantly in the skin and the gastrointestinal tract. Like the basophils, mast cells contain large amounts of histamine and heparin. Unlike basophils, mast cells normally remain in the tissues and do not circulate in the blood. Mast cells, derived from the bone marrow stem cells, are regulated by the stem cell factor. Innate Immunity: Phagocytes and Antigen Presentation and basophils Basophils Granular leukocytes characterized by a relatively pale-staining, lobate nucleus and cytoplasm containing coarse dark-staining granules of variable size and stainable by basic dyes. Innate Immunity: Phagocytes and Antigen Presentation are activated → release of histamine, leukotrienes Leukotrienes A family of biologically active compounds derived from arachidonic acid by oxidative metabolism through the 5-lipoxygenase pathway. They participate in host defense reactions and pathophysiological conditions such as immediate hypersensitivity and inflammation. They have potent actions on many essential organs and systems, including the cardiovascular, pulmonary, and central nervous system as well as the gastrointestinal tract and the immune system. Eicosanoids, and kinins + inflammatory infiltrates with eosinophils Eosinophils Granular leukocytes with a nucleus that usually has two lobes connected by a slender thread of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing coarse, round granules that are uniform in size and stainable by eosin. Innate Immunity: Phagocytes and Antigen Presentation → sneezing Sneezing The sudden, forceful, involuntary expulsion of air from the nose and mouth caused by irritation to the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. Rhinovirus, rhinorrhea Rhinorrhea Excess nasal drainage. Respiratory Syncytial Virus, and congestion (symptoms of allergic rhinitis)

Non-allergic rhinitis

• No single unifying pathogenesis theory
• Hormonal or autonomic stimuli produce a decrease in sympathetic activity and/or an increase in parasympathetic activity.
  • Sympathetic stimulation causes vasoconstriction Vasoconstriction The physiological narrowing of blood vessels by contraction of the vascular smooth muscle. Vascular Resistance, Flow, and Mean Arterial Pressure of the nasal blood vessels (so decreased activity causes reduced vasoconstriction Vasoconstriction The physiological narrowing of blood vessels by contraction of the vascular smooth muscle. Vascular Resistance, Flow, and Mean Arterial Pressure when needed).
  • Parasympathetic stimulation causes vasodilatation of the nasal blood vessels and increased mucous secretions (so increased activity causes an over-response).
• Other abnormal responses to neurogenic stimuli include increased concentrations of vasoactive intestinal peptide Vasoactive intestinal peptide A highly basic, 28 amino acid neuropeptide released from intestinal mucosa. It has a wide range of biological actions affecting the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and respiratory systems and is neuroprotective. It binds special receptors. Gastrointestinal Neural and Hormonal Signaling (potent vasodilator) and substance P ( pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways reception).
• Subtypes:
  • Rhinitis medicamentosa: rebound phenomenon after excessive use of decongestant nasal drops, usually seen after 3 consecutive days of use
  • Drug-induced rhinitis: caused by antihypertensives Antihypertensives The 1st-line medication classes for hypertension include thiazide-like diuretics, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEis), angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), and calcium channel blockers (CCBS). Contraindications, adverse effects, and drug-to-drug interactions are agent specific. Hypertension Drugs and NSAIDs NSAIDS Primary vs Secondary Headaches
  • Pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care rhinitis: persistent edema Edema Edema is a condition in which excess serous fluid accumulates in the body cavity or interstitial space of connective tissues. Edema is a symptom observed in several medical conditions. It can be categorized into 2 types, namely, peripheral (in the extremities) and internal (in an organ or body cavity). Edema of the nasal mucosa Nasal mucosa The mucous lining of the nasal cavity, including lining of the nostril (vestibule) and the olfactory mucosa. Nasal mucosa consists of ciliated cells, goblet cells, brush cells, small granule cells, basal cells (stem cells) and glands containing both mucous and serous cells. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal) and even airway Airway ABCDE Assessment obstruction may be caused by hormonal changes during pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care.
  • Honeymoon rhinitis: occurs following intense sexual excitement
  • Gustatory rhinitis: associated with spicy food and/or alcohol, which stimulates the palatine sensory Sensory Neurons which conduct nerve impulses to the central nervous system. Nervous System: Histology receptors Receptors Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors and produces a cholinergic response
  • Non-air flow Flow Blood flows through the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins in a closed, continuous circuit. Flow is the movement of volume per unit of time. Flow is affected by the pressure gradient and the resistance fluid encounters between 2 points. Vascular resistance is the opposition to flow, which is caused primarily by blood friction against vessel walls. Vascular Resistance, Flow, and Mean Arterial Pressure rhinitis: associated with choanal atresia Atresia Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome (HLHS) and tracheostomy Tracheostomy Surgical formation of an opening into the trachea through the neck, or the opening so created. Laryngomalacia and Tracheomalacia

Clinical Presentation

General symptoms of rhinitis include:

• Nasal congestion: can increase sinus pressure, which leads to headaches
• Rhinorrhoea: The color of the nasal secretion Secretion Coagulation Studies may vary (clear, yellow, or green) in infectious rhinitis.
• Sneezing Sneezing The sudden, forceful, involuntary expulsion of air from the nose and mouth caused by irritation to the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. Rhinovirus
• Post-nasal drip
• Itching (usually of the nose Nose The nose is the human body’s primary organ of smell and functions as part of the upper respiratory system. The nose may be best known for inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide, but it also contributes to other important functions, such as tasting. The anatomy of the nose can be divided into the external nose and the nasal cavity. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal), eyes, and/or throat Throat The pharynx is a component of the digestive system that lies posterior to the nasal cavity, oral cavity, and larynx. The pharynx can be divided into the oropharynx, nasopharynx, and laryngopharynx. Pharyngeal muscles play an integral role in vital processes such as breathing, swallowing, and speaking. Pharynx: Anatomy)
• Conjunctival symptoms:
  • Bilateral watery eyes
  • Conjunctival injection
  • Itching or burning
  • Sensation of a foreign object
• Snorting, sniffing, coughing, clearing throat Throat The pharynx is a component of the digestive system that lies posterior to the nasal cavity, oral cavity, and larynx. The pharynx can be divided into the oropharynx, nasopharynx, and laryngopharynx. Pharyngeal muscles play an integral role in vital processes such as breathing, swallowing, and speaking. Pharynx: Anatomy, palatal click
• Other constitutional symptoms Constitutional Symptoms Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody (ANCA)-Associated Vasculitis may be seen, such as fever Fever Fever is defined as a measured body temperature of at least 38°C (100.4°F). Fever is caused by circulating endogenous and/or exogenous pyrogens that increase levels of prostaglandin E2 in the hypothalamus. Fever is commonly associated with chills, rigors, sweating, and flushing of the skin. Fever, malaise Malaise Tick-borne Encephalitis Virus, chills Chills The sudden sensation of being cold. It may be accompanied by shivering. Fever, irritability, etc ETC The electron transport chain (ETC) sends electrons through a series of proteins, which generate an electrochemical proton gradient that produces energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Electron Transport Chain (ETC).
• Physical findings:
  • Allergic shiners
  • Allergic facies
  • Allergic salute
  • Dennie-Morgan lines

Specific symptoms for the individual categories of rhinitis include the following:

• Infectious rhinitis is more likely to lead to complications:
  • Sinusitis Sinusitis Sinusitis refers to inflammation of the mucosal lining of the paranasal sinuses. The condition usually occurs concurrently with inflammation of the nasal mucosa (rhinitis), a condition known as rhinosinusitis. Acute sinusitis is due to an upper respiratory infection caused by a viral, bacterial, or fungal agent. Sinusitis
  • Otitis media
  • Croup Croup Croup, also known as laryngotracheobronchitis, is a disease most commonly caused by a viral infection that leads to severe inflammation of the upper airway. It usually presents in children < 5 years of age. Patients develop a hoarse, "seal-like" barking cough and inspiratory stridor. Croup
  • Pharyngitis Pharyngitis Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the back of the throat (pharynx). Pharyngitis is usually caused by an upper respiratory tract infection, which is viral in most cases. It typically results in a sore throat and fever. Other symptoms may include a runny nose, cough, headache, and hoarseness. Pharyngitis
  • Secondary bacterial pneumonia Secondary bacterial pneumonia Influenza Viruses/Influenza
• Allergic rhinitis presents in recurrent episodes easily linked to a specific allergen. Associated conditions include:
  • Allergic conjunctivitis Allergic Conjunctivitis Conjunctivitis
  • Atopic dermatitis Dermatitis Any inflammation of the skin. Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)
  • Bronchial asthma Asthma Asthma is a chronic inflammatory respiratory condition characterized by bronchial hyperresponsiveness and airflow obstruction. The disease is believed to result from the complex interaction of host and environmental factors that increase disease predisposition, with inflammation causing symptoms and structural changes. Patients typically present with wheezing, cough, and dyspnea. Asthma
• Non-allergic rhinitis is characterized by the chronic presence of nasal congestion, rhinorrhea Rhinorrhea Excess nasal drainage. Respiratory Syncytial Virus, and postnasal drainage. It is distinguished via:
  • Its late onset
  • Absence of sneezing Sneezing The sudden, forceful, involuntary expulsion of air from the nose and mouth caused by irritation to the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. Rhinovirus and facial itching
  • Congestion and drainage (prominent symptoms)
  • Perennial symptomatology Symptomatology Scarlet Fever

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is clinical, based on characteristic symptoms, suggestive clinical history, and supportive physical exam findings.

• Characteristic symptoms: sneezing Sneezing The sudden, forceful, involuntary expulsion of air from the nose and mouth caused by irritation to the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. Rhinovirus, rhinorrhea Rhinorrhea Excess nasal drainage. Respiratory Syncytial Virus, nasal itching and congestion, postnasal drip, cough, fatigue Fatigue The state of weariness following a period of exertion, mental or physical, characterized by a decreased capacity for work and reduced efficiency to respond to stimuli. Fibromyalgia, etc ETC The electron transport chain (ETC) sends electrons through a series of proteins, which generate an electrochemical proton gradient that produces energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Electron Transport Chain (ETC).
• Suggestive clinical history (depending on the form of rhinitis):
  • Pattern of episodes
  • Chronicity
  • Seasonal variation of symptoms
  • History of medication 
  • Presence of co-existing conditions
  • Occupational exposures
  • Environmental history
  • Identification Identification Defense Mechanisms of precipitating factors
• Physical exam findings:
  • Allergic shiners: infraorbital edema Edema Edema is a condition in which excess serous fluid accumulates in the body cavity or interstitial space of connective tissues. Edema is a symptom observed in several medical conditions. It can be categorized into 2 types, namely, peripheral (in the extremities) and internal (in an organ or body cavity). Edema and darkening
  • Dennie-Morgan lines: lines or folds below the lower lids
  • Allergic salute: transverse nasal crease caused by rubbing of the nose Nose The nose is the human body’s primary organ of smell and functions as part of the upper respiratory system. The nose may be best known for inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide, but it also contributes to other important functions, such as tasting. The anatomy of the nose can be divided into the external nose and the nasal cavity. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal)
  • Allergic facies: open mouth due to mouth breathing with highly arched palate Palate The palate is the structure that forms the roof of the mouth and floor of the nasal cavity. This structure is divided into soft and hard palates. Palate: Anatomy and dental malocclusion
  • Pale nasal mucosa Nasal mucosa The mucous lining of the nasal cavity, including lining of the nostril (vestibule) and the olfactory mucosa. Nasal mucosa consists of ciliated cells, goblet cells, brush cells, small granule cells, basal cells (stem cells) and glands containing both mucous and serous cells. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal) that is sensitive to touch
  • Edematous nasal turbinates Turbinates The scroll-like bony plates with curved margins on the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. Turbinates, also called nasal concha, increase the surface area of nasal cavity thus providing a mechanism for rapid warming and humidification of air as it passes to the lung. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal)
  • Clear rhinorrhea Rhinorrhea Excess nasal drainage. Respiratory Syncytial Virus
  • Retracted tympanic membranes with serous fluid build-up
  • Potential surgically correctable conditions:
    • Deviated nasal septum Nasal septum The partition separating the two nasal cavities in the midplane. It is formed by the septal nasal cartilage, parts of skull bones, and membranous parts. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal)
    • Polyps
    • Enlarged turbinates Turbinates The scroll-like bony plates with curved margins on the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. Turbinates, also called nasal concha, increase the surface area of nasal cavity thus providing a mechanism for rapid warming and humidification of air as it passes to the lung. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal)
• Allergen skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions test, in-vitro testing, or radioallergosorbent test (RAST) is useful in detecting allergic rhinitis but not necessary for making a diagnosis. RAST measures serum concentrations of IgE antibodies IgE antibodies An immunoglobulin associated with mast cells. Overexpression has been associated with allergic hypersensitivity. Type I Hypersensitivity Reaction against a specific allergen.
• Routine laboratory findings are typically normal and not indicated in diagnosis.

Management

Infectious rhinitis

• The mainstay of treatment is symptomatic and supportive, as most cases of infectious rhinitis are of viral etiology, which is self-limiting Self-Limiting Meningitis in Children and resolves spontaneously and steadily within a few days.
• Some patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship may require antibiotics for laboratory-documented bacterial infection.
  • Treat rhinitis due to group A beta-hemolytic streptococci with PO penicillin Penicillin Rheumatic Fever or amoxicillin Amoxicillin A broad-spectrum semisynthetic antibiotic similar to ampicillin except that its resistance to gastric acid permits higher serum levels with oral administration. Penicillins for 10 days (cephalexin if penicillin Penicillin Rheumatic Fever is known to cause rash Rash Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever; clindamycin Clindamycin An antibacterial agent that is a semisynthetic analog of lincomycin. Lincosamides or macrolide if penicillin Penicillin Rheumatic Fever is known to cause anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis An acute hypersensitivity reaction due to exposure to a previously encountered antigen. The reaction may include rapidly progressing urticaria, respiratory distress, vascular collapse, systemic shock, and death. Type I Hypersensitivity Reaction).
  • Timely treatment is crucial for the prevention of acute rheumatic fever Rheumatic fever Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is an autoimmune inflammatory process that usually follows Streptococcal pharyngitis. Acute rheumatic fever usually occurs 2-4 weeks after an untreated infection and affects the heart, skin, joints, and nervous system. Rheumatic Fever.
• Other underlying causes of rhinitis need to be identified and treated (e.g., retroviral therapy for HIV HIV Anti-HIV Drugs, penicillin Penicillin Rheumatic Fever for group A streptococcus Group A Streptococcus A species of gram-positive, coccoid bacteria isolated from skin lesions, blood, inflammatory exudates, and the upper respiratory tract of humans. It is a group a hemolytic Streptococcus that can cause scarlet fever and rheumatic fever. Postinfectious Glomerulonephritis, nystatin Nystatin Macrolide antifungal antibiotic complex produced by streptomyces noursei, s. Aureus, and other streptomyces species. The biologically active components of the complex are nystatin a1, a2, and a3. Polyenes for candida Candida Candida is a genus of dimorphic, opportunistic fungi. Candida albicans is part of the normal human flora and is the most common cause of candidiasis. The clinical presentation varies and can include localized mucocutaneous infections (e.g., oropharyngeal, esophageal, intertriginous, and vulvovaginal candidiasis) and invasive disease (e.g., candidemia, intraabdominal abscess, pericarditis, and meningitis). Candida/Candidiasis).

Allergic rhinitis

• Avoidance of causative allergens (e.g., pollen, dust, animal fur)
• First-line options that may be used orally or as intranasal sprays:
  • Antihistamines Antihistamines Antihistamines are drugs that target histamine receptors, particularly H1 and H2 receptors. H1 antagonists are competitive and reversible inhibitors of H1 receptors. First-generation antihistamines cross the blood-brain barrier and can cause sedation. Antihistamines (e.g., fexofenadine Fexofenadine Antihistamines, diphenhydramine Diphenhydramine A histamine h1 antagonist used as an antiemetic, antitussive, for dermatoses and pruritus, for hypersensitivity reactions, as a hypnotic, an antiparkinson, and as an ingredient in common cold preparations. It has some undesired antimuscarinic and sedative effects. Antihistamines, desloratadine Desloratadine Antihistamines, cetirizine Cetirizine A potent second-generation histamine h1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Antihistamines, loratadine Loratadine A second-generation histamine h1 receptor antagonist used in the treatment of allergic rhinitis and urticaria. Unlike most classical antihistamines (histamine h1 antagonists) it lacks central nervous system depressing effects such as drowsiness. Antihistamines, azelastine Azelastine Antihistamines)
  • Decongestants or sympathomimetics Sympathomimetics Sympathomimetic drugs, also known as adrenergic agonists, mimic the action of the stimulators (î±, β, or dopamine receptors) of the sympathetic autonomic nervous system. Sympathomimetic drugs are classified based on the type of receptors the drugs act on (some agents act on several receptors but 1 is predominate). Sympathomimetic Drugs (e.g., pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine Phenylephrine An alpha-1 adrenergic agonist used as a mydriatic, nasal decongestant, and cardiotonic agent. Sympathomimetic Drugs)
  • Corticosteroids Corticosteroids Chorioretinitis (e.g., budesonide Budesonide A glucocorticoid used in the management of asthma, the treatment of various skin disorders, and allergic rhinitis. Asthma Drugs, fluticasone Fluticasone A steroid with glucocorticoid receptor activity that is used to manage the symptoms of asthma; allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis. Glucocorticoids) 
  • Anticholinergics Anticholinergics Anticholinergic drugs block the effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Anticholinergic agents inhibit the parasympathetic nervous system, resulting in effects on the smooth muscle in the respiratory tract, vascular system, urinary tract, GI tract, and pupils of the eyes. Anticholinergic Drugs (e.g., ipratropium bromide Ipratropium Bromide Asthma Drugs)
  • Mast cell stabilizers Mast Cell Stabilizers Compounds that prevent the release of inflammatory mediators from mast cells. Asthma Drugs (e.g., cromolyn Cromolyn Asthma Drugs sodium Sodium A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23. Hyponatremia nasal spray)
• Second-line options:
  • Leukotriene Leukotriene Asthma Drugs receptor Receptor Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors antagonists (e.g., montelukast Montelukast Asthma Drugs) 
  • Immunotherapy (e.g., controlled exposure to gradually increasing doses of the allergen to downregulate the IgE IgE An immunoglobulin associated with mast cells. Overexpression has been associated with allergic hypersensitivity. Immunoglobulins: Types and Functions response) 
  • Resection of hypertrophic nasal turbinates Turbinates The scroll-like bony plates with curved margins on the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. Turbinates, also called nasal concha, increase the surface area of nasal cavity thus providing a mechanism for rapid warming and humidification of air as it passes to the lung. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal) or polyps
  • Nasal saline irrigation

Non-allergic rhinitis

• Correct the underlying cause (e.g., discontinue medication, correct choanal atresia Atresia Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome (HLHS), avoid consumption of spicy food and other triggers).
• First-line medical options:
  • Topical antihistamines Antihistamines Antihistamines are drugs that target histamine receptors, particularly H1 and H2 receptors. H1 antagonists are competitive and reversible inhibitors of H1 receptors. First-generation antihistamines cross the blood-brain barrier and can cause sedation. Antihistamines (e.g., azelastine Azelastine Antihistamines)
  • Topical intranasal glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids are a class within the corticosteroid family. Glucocorticoids are chemically and functionally similar to endogenous cortisol. There are a wide array of indications, which primarily benefit from the antiinflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of this class of drugs. Glucocorticoids (e.g., fluticasone Fluticasone A steroid with glucocorticoid receptor activity that is used to manage the symptoms of asthma; allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis. Glucocorticoids)
• Second-line medical options:
  • Combination of topical antihistamines Antihistamines Antihistamines are drugs that target histamine receptors, particularly H1 and H2 receptors. H1 antagonists are competitive and reversible inhibitors of H1 receptors. First-generation antihistamines cross the blood-brain barrier and can cause sedation. Antihistamines and topical intranasal glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids are a class within the corticosteroid family. Glucocorticoids are chemically and functionally similar to endogenous cortisol. There are a wide array of indications, which primarily benefit from the antiinflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of this class of drugs. Glucocorticoids
  • Decongestants or sympathomimetics Sympathomimetics Sympathomimetic drugs, also known as adrenergic agonists, mimic the action of the stimulators (î±, β, or dopamine receptors) of the sympathetic autonomic nervous system. Sympathomimetic drugs are classified based on the type of receptors the drugs act on (some agents act on several receptors but 1 is predominate). Sympathomimetic Drugs (e.g., pseudoephedrine) 
  • Nasal lavage with hypertonic Hypertonic Solutions that have a greater osmotic pressure than a reference solution such as blood, plasma, or interstitial fluid. Renal Sodium and Water Regulation NaCl solution 
  • Resection of hypertrophic nasal turbinates Turbinates The scroll-like bony plates with curved margins on the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. Turbinates, also called nasal concha, increase the surface area of nasal cavity thus providing a mechanism for rapid warming and humidification of air as it passes to the lung. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal) or polyps

Differential Diagnosis

• Nasal polyps: benign Benign Fibroadenoma lesions of the nasal mucosa Nasal mucosa The mucous lining of the nasal cavity, including lining of the nostril (vestibule) and the olfactory mucosa. Nasal mucosa consists of ciliated cells, goblet cells, brush cells, small granule cells, basal cells (stem cells) and glands containing both mucous and serous cells. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal) or paranasal sinuses Paranasal Sinuses The 4 pair of paranasal sinuses include the maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid, and frontal sinuses. The sinuses are a group of air-filled cavities located within the facial and cranial skeleton; all are connected to the main nasal cavity and nasopharynx. Paranasal Sinuses: Anatomy due to chronic mucosal inflammation Inflammation Inflammation is a complex set of responses to infection and injury involving leukocytes as the principal cellular mediators in the body’s defense against pathogenic organisms. Inflammation is also seen as a response to tissue injury in the process of wound healing. The 5 cardinal signs of inflammation are pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Inflammation that present with postnasal drip, bilateral nasal obstruction, and impaired olfactory function
• Foreign nasal body: common in children < 5 years old. Often involves food items or small toys. Presents with unilateral rhinorrhea Rhinorrhea Excess nasal drainage. Respiratory Syncytial Virus that can become foul-smelling or purulent, signs of nasal obstruction, or epistaxis Epistaxis Bleeding from the nose. Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis.
• Deviated nasal septum Nasal septum The partition separating the two nasal cavities in the midplane. It is formed by the septal nasal cartilage, parts of skull bones, and membranous parts. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal): a deviation of the nasal septum Nasal septum The partition separating the two nasal cavities in the midplane. It is formed by the septal nasal cartilage, parts of skull bones, and membranous parts. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal) from the midline that can lead to unilateral dyspnea Dyspnea Dyspnea is the subjective sensation of breathing discomfort. Dyspnea is a normal manifestation of heavy physical or psychological exertion, but also may be caused by underlying conditions (both pulmonary and extrapulmonary). Dyspnea, nasal congestion, and snoring
• Adenoid hypertrophy Hypertrophy General increase in bulk of a part or organ due to cell enlargement and accumulation of fluids and secretions, not due to tumor formation, nor to an increase in the number of cells (hyperplasia). Cellular Adaptation: enlargement of the pharyngeal tonsils Tonsils Tonsillitis. Common among children. Presents with mouth breathing, mucopurulent nasal discharge, snoring, and/or impaired hearing.