Alcohol Use Disorder

Overview

Definition

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a chronic (> 12 months), problematic pattern of alcohol use causing significant distress.

Classification

There are varying definitions by different organizations for the classification of alcohol consumption.

• Intoxication:
  • Recent history of use
  • Symptoms such as stupor, unsteady gait Gait Manner or style of walking. Neurological Examination, and slurred speech Slurred Speech Cerebellar Disorders
• Withdrawal:
  • Development of a substance-specific syndrome due to the cessation (or reduction) of substance after heavy and prolonged use
  • Individuals experience physical ( nausea Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. Antiemetics, diarrhea Diarrhea Diarrhea is defined as ≥ 3 watery or loose stools in a 24-hour period. There are a multitude of etiologies, which can be classified based on the underlying mechanism of disease. The duration of symptoms (acute or chronic) and characteristics of the stools (e.g., watery, bloody, steatorrheic, mucoid) can help guide further diagnostic evaluation. Diarrhea, chills Chills The sudden sensation of being cold. It may be accompanied by shivering. Fever, and body aches) and/or psychological symptoms (compulsive or perceived need to use the substance). 
• Tolerance Tolerance Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics:
  • Need to increase the dose of the substance to achieve the same desired effect (diminished effect while using the same amount of the substance)
• Moderate and at-risk drinking:
  • 1 standard drink contains roughly 14 g of pure alcohol.
    • 350 mL (12 oz) of regular Regular Insulin beer
    • 150 mL (5 oz) of wine
    • 45 mL (1.5 oz) of distilled spirits
  • Moderate consumption:
    • Women: ≤ 3 drinks on any single day and no more than 7 drinks per week
    • Men: ≤ 4 drinks on any single day and no more than 14 drinks per week
  • At-risk consumption:
    • Exceeds moderate drinking limits but without physical/psychological ill effects from AUD
    • Includes heavy-episodic drinking (binge drinking) or consumption of > 60 g of alcohol on a single occasion at least once a month

Epidemiology

• Prevalence Prevalence The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from incidence, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time. Measures of Disease Frequency: 7% of adults in the United States have AUD.
• Lifetime prevalence Prevalence The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from incidence, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time. Measures of Disease Frequency: 10% in men, 3%–5% in women
• Caucasians have the highest rate of alcohol use. 
• Only 8% of those who meet criteria for AUD seek treatment. 
• 3rd leading preventable cause of death in the United States
• Risk factors: Studies suggest a strong genetic predisposition to AUD.
• Early onset of AUD associated with higher risk for developing future complications
• Older population with AUD at higher risk of severe consequences of alcohol intoxication

Pharmacology

Biochemistry of ethanol Ethanol A clear, colorless liquid rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed throughout the body. It has bactericidal activity and is used often as a topical disinfectant. It is widely used as a solvent and preservative in pharmaceutical preparations as well as serving as the primary ingredient in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol Metabolism metabolism

• Roughly 90% of alcohol is metabolized by an oxidative process in the liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy; the rest is excreted unchanged through the lungs Lungs Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. Lungs: Anatomy and kidneys Kidneys The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs located retroperitoneally against the posterior wall of the abdomen on either side of the spine. As part of the urinary tract, the kidneys are responsible for blood filtration and excretion of water-soluble waste in the urine. Kidneys: Anatomy.
• Ethanol Ethanol A clear, colorless liquid rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed throughout the body. It has bactericidal activity and is used often as a topical disinfectant. It is widely used as a solvent and preservative in pharmaceutical preparations as well as serving as the primary ingredient in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol Metabolism is metabolized into acetaldehyde Acetaldehyde A colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of acetic acid, perfumes, and flavors. It is also an intermediate in the metabolism of alcohol. It has a general narcotic action and also causes irritation of mucous membranes. Large doses may cause death from respiratory paralysis. Ethanol Metabolism (enzyme: alcohol dehydrogenase Alcohol dehydrogenase A zinc-containing enzyme which oxidizes primary and secondary alcohols or hemiacetals in the presence of nad. In alcoholic fermentation, it catalyzes the final step of reducing an aldehyde to an alcohol in the presence of nadh and hydrogen. Ethanol Metabolism).
• Acetaldehyde Acetaldehyde A colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of acetic acid, perfumes, and flavors. It is also an intermediate in the metabolism of alcohol. It has a general narcotic action and also causes irritation of mucous membranes. Large doses may cause death from respiratory paralysis. Ethanol Metabolism is metabolized into acetate (enzyme: acetaldehyde dehydrogenase Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase Ethanol Metabolism).
• In chronic alcohol consumers, enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes are up-regulated.
• Individuals of Asian ethnicity have less aldehyde dehydrogenase ( gene Gene A category of nucleic acid sequences that function as units of heredity and which code for the basic instructions for the development, reproduction, and maintenance of organisms. Basic Terms of Genetics variation) → accumulation of acetaldehyde Acetaldehyde A colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of acetic acid, perfumes, and flavors. It is also an intermediate in the metabolism of alcohol. It has a general narcotic action and also causes irritation of mucous membranes. Large doses may cause death from respiratory paralysis. Ethanol Metabolism → flushing and nausea Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. Antiemetics → less likely to develop AUD
• Drugs that inhibit ethanol Ethanol A clear, colorless liquid rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed throughout the body. It has bactericidal activity and is used often as a topical disinfectant. It is widely used as a solvent and preservative in pharmaceutical preparations as well as serving as the primary ingredient in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol Metabolism metabolism:
  • Fomepizole Fomepizole A pyrazole and competitive inhibitor of alcohol dehydrogenase that is used for the treatment of poisoning by ethylene glycol or methanol. Antidotes of Common Poisonings ( antidote Antidote An antidote is a substance that counteracts poisoning or toxicity. Substances that can cause poisoning include heavy metals (from occupation, treatments, or diet), alcohols, environmental toxins, and medications. Antidotes of Common Poisonings for methanol Methanol A colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of formaldehyde and acetic acid, in chemical synthesis, antifreeze, and as a solvent. Ingestion of methanol is toxic and may cause blindness. Metabolic Acidosis or ethylene glycol Ethylene glycol A colorless, odorless, viscous dihydroxy alcohol. It has a sweet taste, but is poisonous if ingested. Ethylene glycol is the most important glycol commercially available and is manufactured on a large scale in the United States. It is used as an antifreeze and coolant, in hydraulic fluids, and in the manufacture of low-freezing dynamites and resins. Nephrolithiasis overdose) → inhibits alcohol dehydrogenase Alcohol dehydrogenase A zinc-containing enzyme which oxidizes primary and secondary alcohols or hemiacetals in the presence of nad. In alcoholic fermentation, it catalyzes the final step of reducing an aldehyde to an alcohol in the presence of nadh and hydrogen. Ethanol Metabolism
  • Disulfiram → inhibits acetaldehyde dehydrogenase Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase Ethanol Metabolism

Other types of alcohol

• Methanol Methanol A colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of formaldehyde and acetic acid, in chemical synthesis, antifreeze, and as a solvent. Ingestion of methanol is toxic and may cause blindness. Metabolic Acidosis poisoning: 
  • Some individuals might drink methanol Methanol A colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of formaldehyde and acetic acid, in chemical synthesis, antifreeze, and as a solvent. Ingestion of methanol is toxic and may cause blindness. Metabolic Acidosis as an alternative to ethanol Ethanol A clear, colorless liquid rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed throughout the body. It has bactericidal activity and is used often as a topical disinfectant. It is widely used as a solvent and preservative in pharmaceutical preparations as well as serving as the primary ingredient in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol Metabolism.
  • Intoxication:
    • Visual blurring
    • Central scotoma Central Scotoma The Visual Pathway and Related Disorders
    • Afferent Afferent Neurons which conduct nerve impulses to the central nervous system. Nervous System: Histology pupillary defect
    • Headaches
    • Mental status changes
    • Nausea Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. Antiemetics
    • Vomiting Vomiting The forcible expulsion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth. Hypokalemia
    • Anion gap Anion gap Metabolic Acidosis metabolic acidosis Acidosis A pathologic condition of acid accumulation or depletion of base in the body. The two main types are respiratory acidosis and metabolic acidosis, due to metabolic acid build up. Respiratory Acidosis
  • Most dangerous complications: vision Vision Ophthalmic Exam loss and coma Coma Coma is defined as a deep state of unarousable unresponsiveness, characterized by a score of 3 points on the GCS. A comatose state can be caused by a multitude of conditions, making the precise epidemiology and prognosis of coma difficult to determine. Coma
• Ethylene glycol Ethylene glycol A colorless, odorless, viscous dihydroxy alcohol. It has a sweet taste, but is poisonous if ingested. Ethylene glycol is the most important glycol commercially available and is manufactured on a large scale in the United States. It is used as an antifreeze and coolant, in hydraulic fluids, and in the manufacture of low-freezing dynamites and resins. Nephrolithiasis poisoning:
  • Some individuals might drink ethylene glycol Ethylene glycol A colorless, odorless, viscous dihydroxy alcohol. It has a sweet taste, but is poisonous if ingested. Ethylene glycol is the most important glycol commercially available and is manufactured on a large scale in the United States. It is used as an antifreeze and coolant, in hydraulic fluids, and in the manufacture of low-freezing dynamites and resins. Nephrolithiasis as an alternative to ethanol Ethanol A clear, colorless liquid rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed throughout the body. It has bactericidal activity and is used often as a topical disinfectant. It is widely used as a solvent and preservative in pharmaceutical preparations as well as serving as the primary ingredient in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol Metabolism.
  • Intoxication:
    • Flank pain Flank pain Pain emanating from below the ribs and above the ilium. Renal Cell Carcinoma
    • Hematuria Hematuria Presence of blood in the urine. Renal Cell Carcinoma
    • Oliguria Oliguria Decreased urine output that is below the normal range. Oliguria can be defined as urine output of less than or equal to 0. 5 or 1 ml/kg/hr depending on the age. Renal Potassium Regulation
    • Anion gap Anion gap Metabolic Acidosis metabolic acidosis Acidosis A pathologic condition of acid accumulation or depletion of base in the body. The two main types are respiratory acidosis and metabolic acidosis, due to metabolic acid build up. Respiratory Acidosis
    • Calcium Calcium A basic element found in nearly all tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. Electrolytes oxalate crystals in urine
    • Kidney damage

Effects on the body

• Alcohol is a potent CNS depressant:
  • Activation of inhibitory receptors Receptors Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors ( GABA GABA The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Receptors and Neurotransmitters of the CNS, dopamine Dopamine One of the catecholamine neurotransmitters in the brain. It is derived from tyrosine and is the precursor to norepinephrine and epinephrine. Dopamine is a major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement. Receptors and Neurotransmitters of the CNS, serotonin Serotonin A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid l-tryptophan. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Receptors and Neurotransmitters of the CNS)
  • Inhibition of excitatory receptors Receptors Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors ( glutamate Glutamate Derivatives of glutamic acid. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the 2-aminopentanedioic acid structure. Synthesis of Nonessential Amino Acids, voltage-gated calcium Calcium A basic element found in nearly all tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. Electrolytes channels Channels The Cell: Cell Membrane)
• Alcohol withdrawal
  • With chronic alcohol use, body increases activity of excitatory receptors Receptors Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors (e.g., glutamate Glutamate Derivatives of glutamic acid. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the 2-aminopentanedioic acid structure. Synthesis of Nonessential Amino Acids) while decreasing activation of inhibitory receptors Receptors Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors (e.g., GABA GABA The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Receptors and Neurotransmitters of the CNS). 
  • Cessation of alcohol use leads to unchecked glutamate Glutamate Derivatives of glutamic acid. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the 2-aminopentanedioic acid structure. Synthesis of Nonessential Amino Acids activation, presenting as withdrawal.

Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis

Alcohol intoxication

Signs and symptoms of acute alcohol intoxication differ depending on the blood alcohol level. 

Mild intoxication:

• Talkativeness 
• Feeling of tranquility and relaxation 
• Mild feelings of sedation 
• Impairment in tasks requiring skill and/or fine motor Fine Motor Developmental Milestones and Normal Growth coordination Coordination Cerebellar Disorders

Moderate intoxication:

• Uncontrolled eye movements
• Clumsiness and unsteady gait Gait Manner or style of walking. Neurological Examination (positive field sobriety test)
• Slowed reaction time
• Slurred speech Slurred Speech Cerebellar Disorders
• Impaired judgment Judgment The process of discovering or asserting an objective or intrinsic relation between two objects or concepts; a faculty or power that enables a person to make judgments; the process of bringing to light and asserting the implicit meaning of a concept; a critical evaluation of a person or situation. Psychiatric Assessment
• Altered perception Perception The process by which the nature and meaning of sensory stimuli are recognized and interpreted. Psychiatric Assessment of the environment
• Changes in mood, behavior, and personality

Severe intoxication:

• Nausea Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. Antiemetics and vomiting Vomiting The forcible expulsion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth. Hypokalemia
• Dizziness Dizziness An imprecise term which may refer to a sense of spatial disorientation, motion of the environment, or lightheadedness. Lateral Medullary Syndrome (Wallenberg Syndrome)
• Problems speaking and articulating
• Double vision Vision Ophthalmic Exam
• Amnesia
• Delirium Delirium Delirium is a medical condition characterized by acute disturbances in attention and awareness. Symptoms may fluctuate during the course of a day and involve memory deficits and disorientation. Delirium
• Hypothermia Hypothermia Hypothermia can be defined as a drop in the core body temperature below 35°C (95°F) and is classified into mild, moderate, severe, and profound forms based on the degree of temperature decrease. Hypothermia, or feeling very cold
• Lethargy Lethargy A general state of sluggishness, listless, or uninterested, with being tired, and having difficulty concentrating and doing simple tasks. It may be related to depression or drug addiction. Hyponatremia
• Respiratory depression
• Seizures Seizures A seizure is abnormal electrical activity of the neurons in the cerebral cortex that can manifest in numerous ways depending on the region of the brain affected. Seizures consist of a sudden imbalance that occurs between the excitatory and inhibitory signals in cortical neurons, creating a net excitation. The 2 major classes of seizures are focal and generalized. Seizures
• Coma Coma Coma is defined as a deep state of unarousable unresponsiveness, characterized by a score of 3 points on the GCS. A comatose state can be caused by a multitude of conditions, making the precise epidemiology and prognosis of coma difficult to determine. Coma
• Death

Diagnosis: 

• If possible, obtain a history of alcohol use.
• Breath alcohol test with breathalyzer
• Increased blood alcohol level  
• Liver function tests Liver function tests Liver function tests, also known as hepatic function panels, are one of the most commonly performed screening blood tests. Such tests are also used to detect, evaluate, and monitor acute and chronic liver diseases. Liver Function Tests:
  • AST AST Enzymes of the transferase class that catalyze the conversion of l-aspartate and 2-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate and l-glutamate. Liver Function Tests is 2 × more elevated than ALT ALT An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of l-alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to pyruvate and l-glutamate. Liver Function Tests. Mnemonic: “take A ShoT for me”
  • Elevation of AST AST Enzymes of the transferase class that catalyze the conversion of l-aspartate and 2-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate and l-glutamate. Liver Function Tests and ALT ALT An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of l-alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to pyruvate and l-glutamate. Liver Function Tests is < 500 U/L.
  • Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase ( GGT GGT An enzyme, sometimes called ggt, with a key role in the synthesis and degradation of glutathione; (gsh, a tripeptide that protects cells from many toxins). It catalyzes the transfer of the gamma-glutamyl moiety to an acceptor amino acid. Alcoholic Liver Disease) might be elevated and is specific for recent use.
• Monitor arterial blood gases (ABGs) and anion gap Anion gap Metabolic Acidosis. 
• Obtain amylase Amylase A group of amylolytic enzymes that cleave starch, glycogen, and related alpha-1, 4-glucans. Digestion and Absorption/ lipase Lipase An enzyme of the hydrolase class that catalyzes the reaction of triacylglycerol and water to yield diacylglycerol and a fatty acid anion. It is produced by glands on the tongue and by the pancreas and initiates the digestion of dietary fats. Malabsorption and Maldigestion levels to rule out alcoholic pancreatitis Alcoholic pancreatitis Acute or chronic inflammation of the pancreas due to excessive alcohol drinking. Alcoholic pancreatitis usually presents as an acute episode but it is a chronic progressive disease in alcoholics. Chronic Pancreatitis: considered positive if serum lipase Lipase An enzyme of the hydrolase class that catalyzes the reaction of triacylglycerol and water to yield diacylglycerol and a fatty acid anion. It is produced by glands on the tongue and by the pancreas and initiates the digestion of dietary fats. Malabsorption and Maldigestion is > 3 × normal limits

Alcohol withdrawal

Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol Scale Scale Dermatologic Examination (CIWA-A): 

• Helps in determining the severity of withdrawal
• Maximum score: 67 
• Individuals who score < 10 usually do not need additional medication for withdrawal.
• Assesses the following symptoms, most of which have a maximum score of 7 points:
  • Nausea Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. Antiemetics and vomiting Vomiting The forcible expulsion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth. Hypokalemia
  • Tactile disturbances
  • Tremor Tremor Cyclical movement of a body part that can represent either a physiologic process or a manifestation of disease. Intention or action tremor, a common manifestation of cerebellar diseases, is aggravated by movement. In contrast, resting tremor is maximal when there is no attempt at voluntary movement, and occurs as a relatively frequent manifestation of parkinson disease. Myotonic Dystrophies
  • Auditory disturbances
  • Paroxysmal sweating
  • Visual disturbances
  • Anxiety Anxiety Feelings or emotions of dread, apprehension, and impending disaster but not disabling as with anxiety disorders. Generalized Anxiety Disorder
  • Headache Headache The symptom of pain in the cranial region. It may be an isolated benign occurrence or manifestation of a wide variety of headache disorders. Brain Abscess, fullness in head
  • Agitation Agitation A feeling of restlessness associated with increased motor activity. This may occur as a manifestation of nervous system drug toxicity or other conditions. St. Louis Encephalitis Virus
  • Orientation Orientation Awareness of oneself in relation to time, place and person. Psychiatric Assessment and clouding of sensorium (maximum: 4 points)

Diagnosis:

• Must obtain detailed history of alcohol use, including most recent use
• Alcohol withdrawal is a lethal condition if not treated. 
• Complete mental status examination Mental Status Examination Psychiatric Assessment to assess severity 
• Manifestations vary depending on the time of most recent alcohol consumption.
• Urine drug screen
• Blood alcohol level cannot independently predict severity of alcohol withdrawal symptoms. 

Alcohol use disorder

Screening Screening Preoperative Care for misuse of alcohol must be incorporated into routine visits.

• Initial screening Screening Preoperative Care: How many times in the past year have you had > 5 drinks in 1 sitting? 
• CAGE questionnaire:
  • Have you felt you should Cut down on your drinking?
  • Have people Annoyed you by criticizing your drinking?
  • Have you felt Guilty about your drinking?
  • Have you felt you needed a drink early in the morning to steady yourself (Eye opener)
• Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Identification Defense Mechanisms Test (AUDIT):
  • Issued by WHO 
  • Aim: Identify persons whose alcohol consumption has become harmful to their health. 
  • 10-item screening Screening Preoperative Care questionnaire
    • 3 questions on amount and frequency of drinking
    • 3 questions on alcohol dependence
    • 4 questions on harmful impact of alcohol consumption
  • Maximum: 4 points per question
    • 1–7 points: suggests low-risk consumption 
    • 8–14 points: suggests hazardous or harmful alcohol consumption
    • ≥ 15 points: suggests alcohol dependence (moderate-to-severe AUD)

Laboratory findings

• Carbohydrate-deficient transferrin Transferrin An iron-binding beta1-globulin that is synthesized in the liver and secreted into the blood. It plays a central role in the transport of iron throughout the circulation. Heme Metabolism (CDT):
  • Chronic heavy alcohol consumption elevates CDT
  • Used to distinguish chronic heavy drinkers from light or “social drinkers”
• RBCs RBCs Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs), are the most abundant cells in the blood. While erythrocytes in the fetus are initially produced in the yolk sac then the liver, the bone marrow eventually becomes the main site of production. Erythrocytes: Histology:
  • ↓ Total number
  • ↑ MCV and MCH 
  • Changes can be observed after 4–8 weeks of excessive alcohol consumption
  • May be present even with normal folate Folate Folate and vitamin B12 are 2 of the most clinically important water-soluble vitamins. Deficiencies can present with megaloblastic anemia, GI symptoms, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and adverse pregnancy complications, including neural tube defects. Folate and Vitamin B12 levels 
• ↓ WBCs
• Electrolytes Electrolytes Electrolytes are mineral salts that dissolve in water and dissociate into charged particles called ions, which can be either be positively (cations) or negatively (anions) charged. Electrolytes are distributed in the extracellular and intracellular compartments in different concentrations. Electrolytes are essential for various basic life-sustaining functions. Electrolytes:
  • Hypomagnesemia Hypomagnesemia A nutritional condition produced by a deficiency of magnesium in the diet, characterized by anorexia, nausea, vomiting, lethargy, and weakness. Symptoms are paresthesias, muscle cramps, irritability, decreased attention span, and mental confusion, possibly requiring months to appear. Deficiency of body magnesium can exist even when serum values are normal. In addition, magnesium deficiency may be organ-selective, since certain tissues become deficient before others. Electrolytes 
  • Hypokalemia Hypokalemia Hypokalemia is defined as plasma potassium (K+) concentration < 3.5 mEq/L. Homeostatic mechanisms maintain plasma concentration between 3.5-5.2 mEq/L despite marked variation in dietary intake. Hypokalemia can be due to renal losses, GI losses, transcellular shifts, or poor dietary intake. Hypokalemia 
• Note: Individuals with increased tolerance Tolerance Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics may not show alcohol intoxication symptoms even with increased blood alcohol level.

Management and Complications

Alcohol intoxication

• Primarily supportive
• Airway Airway ABCDE Assessment, breathing, circulation assessment Circulation Assessment Multitrauma (ABC): Check regularly.
• Thiamine Thiamine Also known as thiamine or thiamin, it is a vitamin C12H17N4OSCl of the vitamin B complex that is essential to normal metabolism and nerve function and is widespread in plants and animals Water-soluble Vitamins and their Deficiencies (vitamin B₁):
  • Should be administered to all individuals with alcohol intoxication–induced coma Coma Coma is defined as a deep state of unarousable unresponsiveness, characterized by a score of 3 points on the GCS. A comatose state can be caused by a multitude of conditions, making the precise epidemiology and prognosis of coma difficult to determine. Coma
  • To prevent or treat Wernicke encephalopathy Encephalopathy Hyper-IgM Syndrome
  • Administer before glucose Glucose A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. Lactose Intolerance → giving glucose Glucose A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. Lactose Intolerance alone worsens Wernicke encephalopathy Encephalopathy Hyper-IgM Syndrome
• Regularly monitor:
  • Glucose Glucose A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. Lactose Intolerance
  • Electrolytes Electrolytes Electrolytes are mineral salts that dissolve in water and dissociate into charged particles called ions, which can be either be positively (cations) or negatively (anions) charged. Electrolytes are distributed in the extracellular and intracellular compartments in different concentrations. Electrolytes are essential for various basic life-sustaining functions. Electrolytes
  • Acid–base status
• Agitation Agitation A feeling of restlessness associated with increased motor activity. This may occur as a manifestation of nervous system drug toxicity or other conditions. St. Louis Encephalitis Virus: Administer benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines work on the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor to produce inhibitory effects on the CNS. Benzodiazepines do not mimic GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in humans, but instead potentiate GABA activity. Benzodiazepines or 1st-generation antipsychotics. 
• GI evaluation:
  • Not generally indicated in the treatment of alcohol intoxication
  • Might be considered if a significant amount of alcohol was ingested within the preceding 30–60 minutes
  • Options include gastric lavage, induction of emesis, and/or administration of charcoal Charcoal An amorphous form of carbon prepared from the incomplete combustion of animal or vegetable matter, e.g., wood. The activated form of charcoal is used in the treatment of poisoning. Antidotes of Common Poisonings.

Alcohol withdrawal

• Setting:
  • Treatment method depends on the severity of withdrawal symptoms. 
  • Otherwise healthy individuals with mild symptoms can be treated in an outpatient setting.
  • Individuals with CIWA-A > 15 or with medical comorbidities Comorbidities The presence of co-existing or additional diseases with reference to an initial diagnosis or with reference to the index condition that is the subject of study. Comorbidity may affect the ability of affected individuals to function and also their survival; it may be used as a prognostic indicator for length of hospital stay, cost factors, and outcome or survival. St. Louis Encephalitis Virus should be treated in an inpatient setting.
  • If hemodynamically unstable or nonresponsive to benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines work on the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor to produce inhibitory effects on the CNS. Benzodiazepines do not mimic GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in humans, but instead potentiate GABA activity. Benzodiazepines → intensive care level treatment 
• Medications:
  • Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines work on the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor to produce inhibitory effects on the CNS. Benzodiazepines do not mimic GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in humans, but instead potentiate GABA activity. Benzodiazepines ( chlordiazepoxide Chlordiazepoxide An anxiolytic benzodiazepine derivative with anticonvulsant, sedative, and amnesic properties. It has also been used in the symptomatic treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Benzodiazepines, diazepam Diazepam A benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, sedative, muscle relaxant, and amnesic properties and a long duration of action. Its actions are mediated by enhancement of gamma-aminobutyric acid activity. Benzodiazepines, lorazepam Lorazepam A benzodiazepine used as an anti-anxiety agent with few side effects. It also has hypnotic, anticonvulsant, and considerable sedative properties and has been proposed as a preanesthetic agent. Benzodiazepines)
    • 1st-line treatment
    • Given orally or IV (in severe cases) 
    • Lorazepam Lorazepam A benzodiazepine used as an anti-anxiety agent with few side effects. It also has hypnotic, anticonvulsant, and considerable sedative properties and has been proposed as a preanesthetic agent. Benzodiazepines preferred in individuals with liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy abnormalities
    • Usually given on as-needed basis in conjunction with CIWA-A
    • Start at a high dosage Dosage Dosage Calculation and then taper or titrate as condition improves
  • Antipsychotics (caution: lower seizure threshold Threshold Minimum voltage necessary to generate an action potential (an all-or-none response) Skeletal Muscle Contraction) 
  • Barbiturates Barbiturates A class of chemicals derived from barbituric acid or thiobarbituric acid. Many of these are gaba modulators used as hypnotics and sedatives, as anesthetics, or as anticonvulsants. Intravenous Anesthetics: can be used as adjunct to benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines work on the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor to produce inhibitory effects on the CNS. Benzodiazepines do not mimic GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in humans, but instead potentiate GABA activity. Benzodiazepines 
  • Sedatives (dexmedetomidine, propofol Propofol An intravenous anesthetic agent which has the advantage of a very rapid onset after infusion or bolus injection plus a very short recovery period of a couple of minutes. Propofol has been used as anticonvulsants and antiemetics. Intravenous Anesthetics): used in severe benzodiazepine-resistant alcohol withdrawal
• Thiamine Thiamine Also known as thiamine or thiamin, it is a vitamin C12H17N4OSCl of the vitamin B complex that is essential to normal metabolism and nerve function and is widespread in plants and animals Water-soluble Vitamins and their Deficiencies (vitamin B₁) and folic acid (vitamin B₉) 
• Correct electrolyte and fluid abnormalities

Alcohol use disorder

• 1st step is identification Identification Defense Mechanisms.
• Followed by intervention, detoxification, and rehabilitation 
• Relapse Relapse Relapsing Fever prevention: social support, individual and group counseling, self-help groups ( Alcoholics Anonymous Alcoholics Anonymous An organization of self-proclaimed alcoholics who meet frequently to reinforce their practice of abstinence. Alcoholic Liver Disease) 
• Factors predicting poor prognosis Prognosis A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual’s condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations. Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas:
  • Preexisting major psychiatric diagnosis ( bipolar Bipolar Nervous System: Histology disorder, schizophrenia Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a chronic mental health disorder characterized by the presence of psychotic symptoms such as delusions or hallucinations. The signs and symptoms of schizophrenia are traditionally separated into 2 groups: positive (delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech or behavior) and negative (flat affect, avolition, anhedonia, poor attention, and alogia). Schizophrenia)
  • Preexisting personality disorder ( antisocial personality disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder A personality disorder whose essential feature is a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. The individual must be at least age 18 and must have a history of some symptoms of conduct disorder before age 15. Cluster B Personality Disorders) 
  • Other substance use disorder
  • Lack of social stability

Complications

• Wernicke encephalopathy Encephalopathy Hyper-IgM Syndrome (WE): neurologic symptoms caused by thiamine Thiamine Also known as thiamine or thiamin, it is a vitamin C12H17N4OSCl of the vitamin B complex that is essential to normal metabolism and nerve function and is widespread in plants and animals Water-soluble Vitamins and their Deficiencies (vitamin B₁) deficiency, which is common in individuals with AUD. Wernicke encephalopathy Encephalopathy Hyper-IgM Syndrome is marked by 3 features: ataxia Ataxia Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharynx, larynx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or peripheral nerve diseases. Motor ataxia may be associated with cerebellar diseases; cerebral cortex diseases; thalamic diseases; basal ganglia diseases; injury to the red nucleus; and other conditions. Ataxia-telangiectasia (broad-based), oculomotor dysfunction, and encephalopathy Encephalopathy Hyper-IgM Syndrome (confusion, altered mental status Altered Mental Status Sepsis in Children). Treatment is supplementation with thiamine Thiamine Also known as thiamine or thiamin, it is a vitamin C12H17N4OSCl of the vitamin B complex that is essential to normal metabolism and nerve function and is widespread in plants and animals Water-soluble Vitamins and their Deficiencies. 
• Korsakoff syndrome Korsakoff syndrome An acquired cognitive disorder characterized by inattentiveness and the inability to form short term memories. This disorder is frequently associated with chronic alcoholism; but it may also result from dietary deficiencies; craniocerebral trauma; neoplasms; cerebrovascular disorders; encephalitis; epilepsy; and other conditions. Wernicke Encephalopathy and Korsakoff Syndrome: neurologic disorder that occurs as a result of damage to the medial dorsal nucleus Nucleus Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (cell nucleolus). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. The Cell: Organelles of the thalamus Thalamus The thalamus is a large, ovoid structure in the dorsal part of the diencephalon that is located between the cerebral cortex and midbrain. It consists of several interconnected nuclei of grey matter separated by the laminae of white matter. The thalamus is the main conductor of information that passes between the cerebral cortex and the periphery, spinal cord, or brain stem. Thalamus: Anatomy and mammillary bodies Mammillary bodies A pair of nuclei and associated gray matter in the interpeduncular space rostral to the posterior perforated substance in the posterior hypothalamus. Limbic System: Anatomy. Korsakoff syndrome Korsakoff syndrome An acquired cognitive disorder characterized by inattentiveness and the inability to form short term memories. This disorder is frequently associated with chronic alcoholism; but it may also result from dietary deficiencies; craniocerebral trauma; neoplasms; cerebrovascular disorders; encephalitis; epilepsy; and other conditions. Wernicke Encephalopathy and Korsakoff Syndrome can occur in combination with WE or separately. Korsakoff syndrome Korsakoff syndrome An acquired cognitive disorder characterized by inattentiveness and the inability to form short term memories. This disorder is frequently associated with chronic alcoholism; but it may also result from dietary deficiencies; craniocerebral trauma; neoplasms; cerebrovascular disorders; encephalitis; epilepsy; and other conditions. Wernicke Encephalopathy and Korsakoff Syndrome is characterized by confabulation Confabulation Memory fabrication to make up for memory lapses Wernicke Encephalopathy and Korsakoff Syndrome (unconsciously producing fabricated memories about oneself or the world), personality changes, and permanent memory Memory Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory. Psychiatric Assessment loss (impaired recent memory Memory Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory. Psychiatric Assessment, anterograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia Loss of the ability to form new memories beyond a certain point in time. This condition may be organic or psychogenic in origin. Organically induced anterograde amnesia may follow craniocerebral trauma; seizures; anoxia; and other conditions which adversely affect neural structures associated with memory formation (e.g., the hippocampus; fornix (brain); mammillary bodies; and anterior thalamic nuclei). Wernicke Encephalopathy and Korsakoff Syndrome). Treatment is replacement of thiamine Thiamine Also known as thiamine or thiamin, it is a vitamin C12H17N4OSCl of the vitamin B complex that is essential to normal metabolism and nerve function and is widespread in plants and animals Water-soluble Vitamins and their Deficiencies as well as proper hydration and nutrition. 
• Pancreatitis Pancreatitis Inflammation of the pancreas. Pancreatitis is classified as acute unless there are computed tomographic or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatographic findings of chronic pancreatitis. The two most common forms of acute pancreatitis are alcoholic pancreatitis and gallstone pancreatitis. Acute Pancreatitis: One of the top causes of pancreatitis Pancreatitis Inflammation of the pancreas. Pancreatitis is classified as acute unless there are computed tomographic or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatographic findings of chronic pancreatitis. The two most common forms of acute pancreatitis are alcoholic pancreatitis and gallstone pancreatitis. Acute Pancreatitis, both acute and chronic, is recurrent alcohol consumption. Alcohol stimulates pancreatic cells to secrete lytic enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes, producing an inflammatory process and inducing autolysis. Both forms of pancreatitis Pancreatitis Inflammation of the pancreas. Pancreatitis is classified as acute unless there are computed tomographic or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatographic findings of chronic pancreatitis. The two most common forms of acute pancreatitis are alcoholic pancreatitis and gallstone pancreatitis. Acute Pancreatitis present with severe abdominal pain Abdominal Pain Acute Abdomen, nausea Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. Antiemetics, and vomiting Vomiting The forcible expulsion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth. Hypokalemia. Treatment involves supportive care as well as cessation of alcohol use. 
• Alcoholic Alcoholic Persons who have a history of physical or psychological dependence on ethanol. Mallory-Weiss Syndrome (Mallory-Weiss Tear) liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy disease: spectrum of liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy disorders that occur as a result of excessive alcohol consumption. Alcoholic Alcoholic Persons who have a history of physical or psychological dependence on ethanol. Mallory-Weiss Syndrome (Mallory-Weiss Tear) liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy disease can range from fatty liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy to liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy cirrhosis Cirrhosis Cirrhosis is a late stage of hepatic parenchymal necrosis and scarring (fibrosis) most commonly due to hepatitis C infection and alcoholic liver disease. Patients may present with jaundice, ascites, and hepatosplenomegaly. Cirrhosis can also cause complications such as hepatic encephalopathy, portal hypertension, portal vein thrombosis, and hepatorenal syndrome. Cirrhosis, and it affects up to 20% of heavy drinkers. Liver function tests Liver function tests Liver function tests, also known as hepatic function panels, are one of the most commonly performed screening blood tests. Such tests are also used to detect, evaluate, and monitor acute and chronic liver diseases. Liver Function Tests and liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy biopsy Biopsy Removal and pathologic examination of specimens from the living body. Ewing Sarcoma are helpful in establishing the diagnosis. Individuals with alcoholic Alcoholic Persons who have a history of physical or psychological dependence on ethanol. Mallory-Weiss Syndrome (Mallory-Weiss Tear) liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy diseases are susceptible to further damage to their liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy by infection and drugs. Alcohol abstinence is key at all stages of this disease. 

Alcohol consumption during pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care:

• Cardiac congenital defects: ventricular and atrial septal defects, tetralogy of Fallot Tetralogy of Fallot Tetralogy of Fallot is the most common cyanotic congenital heart disease. The disease is the confluence of 4 pathologic cardiac features: overriding aorta, ventricular septal defect, right ventricular outflow obstruction, and right ventricular hypertrophy. Tetralogy of Fallot, patent ductus arteriosus Ductus arteriosus A fetal blood vessel connecting the pulmonary artery with the descending aorta. Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA) 
• Fetal alcohol syndrome:
  • Marked by 3 specific facial dysmorphisms:
    • Small palpebral fissures
    • Smooth philtrum
    • Thin vermilion border
  • Associated with low height and/or weight, microcephaly Microcephaly A congenital abnormality in which the cerebrum is underdeveloped, the fontanels close prematurely, and, as a result, the head is small. (desk reference for neuroscience, 2nd ed. ). Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, and cognitive and behavioral impairments

Differential Diagnosis

• Hepatic encephalopathy Encephalopathy Hyper-IgM Syndrome: altered mental status Altered Mental Status Sepsis in Children secondary to severe liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy disease. Hepatic encephalopathy Encephalopathy Hyper-IgM Syndrome often presents with cognitive impairment, ataxia Ataxia Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharynx, larynx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or peripheral nerve diseases. Motor ataxia may be associated with cerebellar diseases; cerebral cortex diseases; thalamic diseases; basal ganglia diseases; injury to the red nucleus; and other conditions. Ataxia-telangiectasia, and findings of chronic liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver: Anatomy disease, which are commonly found in those with a history of chronic alcohol use. Even in individuals with severe AUD, a full workup to determine other potential causes of hepatic encephalopathy Encephalopathy Hyper-IgM Syndrome must be completed. Treatment is supportive.   
• Sedatives and hypnotics intoxication: Sedative and hypnotic agents include benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines work on the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor to produce inhibitory effects on the CNS. Benzodiazepines do not mimic GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in humans, but instead potentiate GABA activity. Benzodiazepines (BDZs), barbiturates Barbiturates A class of chemicals derived from barbituric acid or thiobarbituric acid. Many of these are gaba modulators used as hypnotics and sedatives, as anesthetics, or as anticonvulsants. Intravenous Anesthetics and non-BDZs. Medically, sedative and hypnotic agents are used as anxiolytics, hypnotics, anticonvulsant Anticonvulsant Anticonvulsant drugs are pharmacological agents used to achieve seizure control and/or prevent seizure episodes. Anticonvulsants encompass various drugs with different mechanisms of action including ion-channel (Na+ and Ca+2) blocking and GABA reuptake inhibition. First-Generation Anticonvulsant Drugs medications, and muscle relaxants. Symptoms include ataxia Ataxia Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharynx, larynx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or peripheral nerve diseases. Motor ataxia may be associated with cerebellar diseases; cerebral cortex diseases; thalamic diseases; basal ganglia diseases; injury to the red nucleus; and other conditions. Ataxia-telangiectasia and short-term memory Memory Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory. Psychiatric Assessment loss. History and urine drug screen can distinguish sedative and hypnotic use from AUD; however, alcohol is often taken with sedatives and hypnotics, resulting in synergistic effects. Treatment is supportive, with special attention Attention Focusing on certain aspects of current experience to the exclusion of others. It is the act of heeding or taking notice or concentrating. Psychiatric Assessment to airways (aspiration, respiratory failure Respiratory failure Respiratory failure is a syndrome that develops when the respiratory system is unable to maintain oxygenation and/or ventilation. Respiratory failure may be acute or chronic and is classified as hypoxemic, hypercapnic, or a combination of the two. Respiratory Failure) and cardiac arrhythmias.