Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS) (Clinical)

Overview

Epidemiology^[1,2,5,7,8]

• Primarily a disease of children
• Incidence Incidence The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from prevalence, which refers to all cases in the population at a given time. Measures of Disease Frequency (in the United States):
  • 8 cases per 1 million children
  • 1 case per 1 million adults
• Demographics:
  • Most patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship are < 5 years of age.
  • Rare in adults
  • Data on sex Sex The totality of characteristics of reproductive structure, functions, phenotype, and genotype, differentiating the male from the female organism. Gender Dysphoria predominance are inconsistent (conflicting epidemiological studies epidemiological studies Epidemiological studies are used to establish associations between risk factors and health-related outcomes. These studies can take the form of observational or interventional studies. Epidemiological Studies)
• Mortality Mortality All deaths reported in a given population. Measures of Health Status:
  • 1%–5% in children
  • 50%–60% in adults

Etiology^[1,2,5,8,13]

• Causative organism: exfoliative toxin-producing strains of Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus Potentially pathogenic bacteria found in nasal membranes, skin, hair follicles, and perineum of warm-blooded animals. They may cause a wide range of infections and intoxications. Brain Abscess:
  • Gram-positive Gram-Positive Penicillins cocci Cocci Bacteriology in clusters
  • Coagulase-positive Coagulase-Positive Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS)
  • Exfoliative toxin is produced in approximately 5% of S. aureus S. aureus Potentially pathogenic bacteria found in nasal membranes, skin, hair follicles, and perineum of warm-blooded animals. They may cause a wide range of infections and intoxications. Staphylococcus strains.
  • Most common strains: types 55 and 71
• Transmission: contact with an asymptomatic or colonized carrier Carrier Vaccination
• Common sites of outbreaks Outbreaks Sudden increase in the incidence of a disease. The concept includes epidemics and pandemics. Influenza Viruses/Influenza:
  • ICUs
  • Nurseries
• Risk factors:
  • Children are more vulnerable because of:
    • Lack of immunity
    • Immature renal clearance Renal Clearance Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics (exotoxin cleared through the kidneys Kidneys The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs located retroperitoneally against the posterior wall of the abdomen on either side of the spine. As part of the urinary tract, the kidneys are responsible for blood filtration and excretion of water-soluble waste in the urine. Kidneys: Anatomy)
  • Adults:
    • Immunodeficiency Immunodeficiency Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome
    • Renal failure Renal failure Conditions in which the kidneys perform below the normal level in the ability to remove wastes, concentrate urine, and maintain electrolyte balance; blood pressure; and calcium metabolism. Renal insufficiency can be classified by the degree of kidney damage (as measured by the level of proteinuria) and reduction in glomerular filtration rate. Crush Syndrome
    • Malignancy Malignancy Hemothorax
    • Diabetes Diabetes Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia and dysfunction of the regulation of glucose metabolism by insulin. Type 1 DM is diagnosed mostly in children and young adults as the result of autoimmune destruction of β cells in the pancreas and the resulting lack of insulin. Type 2 DM has a significant association with obesity and is characterized by insulin resistance. Diabetes Mellitus

Pathophysiology

• Starts as a localized, staphylococcal infection:^[2]
  • Skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions wounds
  • Conjunctivitis Conjunctivitis Conjunctivitis is a common inflammation of the bulbar and/or palpebral conjunctiva. It can be classified into infectious (mostly viral) and noninfectious conjunctivitis, which includes allergic causes. Patients commonly present with red eyes, increased tearing, burning, foreign body sensation, and photophobia. Conjunctivitis
  • Pharyngitis Pharyngitis Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the back of the throat (pharynx). Pharyngitis is usually caused by an upper respiratory tract infection, which is viral in most cases. It typically results in a sore throat and fever. Other symptoms may include a runny nose, cough, headache, and hoarseness. Pharyngitis
  • Pneumonia Pneumonia Pneumonia or pulmonary inflammation is an acute or chronic inflammation of lung tissue. Causes include infection with bacteria, viruses, or fungi. In more rare cases, pneumonia can also be caused through toxic triggers through inhalation of toxic substances, immunological processes, or in the course of radiotherapy. Pneumonia
  • The primary site of infection is not always evident.
• Staphylococcus Staphylococcus Staphylococcus is a medically important genera of Gram-positive, aerobic cocci. These bacteria form clusters resembling grapes on culture plates. Staphylococci are ubiquitous for humans, and many strains compose the normal skin flora. Staphylococcus produces exotoxin → spread hematogenously^[1,2,8,9]
  • Two types of exotoxins Exotoxins Toxins produced, especially by bacterial or fungal cells, and released into the culture medium or environment. Bacteriology:
    • Exfoliative toxin A Exfoliative toxin A Staphylococcus (ETA)
    • Exfoliative toxin B Exfoliative toxin B Staphylococcus (ETB)
  • Exotoxin function:
    • Cleaves desmoglein Desmoglein A group of desmosomal cadherins with cytoplasmic tails that resemble those of classical cadherins. The Cell: Cell Junctions (Dsg) 1 complex in the stratum granulosum Stratum granulosum Skin: Structure and Functions
    • Disrupts keratinocyte-to-keratinocyte adhesion Adhesion The process whereby platelets adhere to something other than platelets, e.g., collagen; basement membrane; microfibrils; or other ‘foreign’ surfaces. Coagulation Studies
    • Causes separation and detachment of the superficial epidermis Epidermis The external, nonvascular layer of the skin. It is made up, from within outward, of five layers of epithelium: (1) basal layer (stratum basale epidermidis); (2) spinous layer (stratum spinosum epidermidis); (3) granular layer (stratum granulosum epidermidis); (4) clear layer (stratum lucidum epidermidis); and (5) horny layer (stratum corneum epidermidis). Skin: Structure and Functions

Clinical Presentation

• Incubation Incubation The amount time between exposure to an infectious agent and becoming symptomatic. Rabies Virus period: 1–10 days^[10,13]
• Prodromal symptoms:^[1,9,10]
  • Fever Fever Fever is defined as a measured body temperature of at least 38°C (100.4°F). Fever is caused by circulating endogenous and/or exogenous pyrogens that increase levels of prostaglandin E2 in the hypothalamus. Fever is commonly associated with chills, rigors, sweating, and flushing of the skin. Fever
  • Irritability
  • Malaise Malaise Tick-borne Encephalitis Virus
  • Poor feeding 
• Sites of primary infection Primary infection Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2:^[9,10]
  • Infants: umbilical stump Umbilical Stump Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS) or diaper region
  • Older children: typically head and neck Neck The part of a human or animal body connecting the head to the rest of the body. Peritonsillar Abscess region (e.g., conjunctivitis Conjunctivitis Conjunctivitis is a common inflammation of the bulbar and/or palpebral conjunctiva. It can be classified into infectious (mostly viral) and noninfectious conjunctivitis, which includes allergic causes. Patients commonly present with red eyes, increased tearing, burning, foreign body sensation, and photophobia. Conjunctivitis, otitis media, pharyngitis Pharyngitis Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the back of the throat (pharynx). Pharyngitis is usually caused by an upper respiratory tract infection, which is viral in most cases. It typically results in a sore throat and fever. Other symptoms may include a runny nose, cough, headache, and hoarseness. Pharyngitis)
  • Frequently not evident
• Cutaneous findings:^{[1,3,9,10,13]}
  • Early manifestations:
    • Erythematous macules on the face and flexural surfaces (e.g., axilla Axilla The axilla is a pyramid-shaped space located between the upper thorax and the arm. The axilla has a base, an apex, and 4 walls (anterior, medial, lateral, posterior). The base of the pyramid is made up of the axillary skin. The apex is the axillary inlet, located between the 1st rib, superior border of the scapula, and clavicle. Axilla and Brachial Plexus: Anatomy, inguinal folds, gluteal cleft)
    • Skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways
  • Erythema Erythema Redness of the skin produced by congestion of the capillaries. This condition may result from a variety of disease processes. Chalazion spreads diffusely within 24–48 hours.
    • Resembles an acute burn
    • Flaccid blisters develop, creating a wrinkled appearance.
    • Skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions peeling and erosions Erosions Corneal Abrasions, Erosion, and Ulcers in areas of friction with red, moist skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions underneath
    • Positive Nikolsky sign Nikolsky Sign Dermatologic Examination: extension Extension Examination of the Upper Limbs of skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions blistering or sloughing by applying pressure
    • Fissures and crusting around the mouth, eyes, and nose Nose The nose is the human body’s primary organ of smell and functions as part of the upper respiratory system. The nose may be best known for inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide, but it also contributes to other important functions, such as tasting. The anatomy of the nose can be divided into the external nose and the nasal cavity. Nose Anatomy (External & Internal) (called “ SSSS SSSS Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS), also known as Ritter disease and staphylococcal epidermal necrolysis, is a toxin-mediated condition caused by Staphylococcus aureus. The exfoliative toxin produced disseminates and cleaves desmoglein 1 in the epidermis, causing separation and detachment of the skin. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS) sad face”)
    • Spares the mucosa
  • Widespread desquamation Desquamation Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS) may take place within 36–72 hours.
  • Healing occurs within 2 weeks.
• The loss of the skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions barrier predisposes patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship to:^[1,9,13]
  • Dehydration Dehydration The condition that results from excessive loss of water from a living organism. Volume Depletion and Dehydration
  • Electrolyte imbalances
  • Sepsis Sepsis Systemic inflammatory response syndrome with a proven or suspected infectious etiology. When sepsis is associated with organ dysfunction distant from the site of infection, it is called severe sepsis. When sepsis is accompanied by hypotension despite adequate fluid infusion, it is called septic shock. Sepsis and Septic Shock
  • Hypothermia Hypothermia Hypothermia can be defined as a drop in the core body temperature below 35°C (95°F) and is classified into mild, moderate, severe, and profound forms based on the degree of temperature decrease. Hypothermia

Diagnosis and Management

Diagnosis

• Usually diagnosed clinically^[3,9,10]
• Cultures:^[9,10]
  • Used for confirmation and antibiotic susceptibility data
  • Should not be taken from bullae Bullae Erythema Multiforme: Site will be sterile Sterile Basic Procedures, since condition is caused by a toxin.
  • Options:
    • Possible areas of a primary infection Primary infection Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2
    • Conjunctiva Conjunctiva The mucous membrane that covers the posterior surface of the eyelids and the anterior pericorneal surface of the eyeball. Eye: Anatomy
    • Nares Nares Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS)
    • Nasopharynx Nasopharynx The top portion of the pharynx situated posterior to the nose and superior to the soft palate. The nasopharynx is the posterior extension of the nasal cavities and has a respiratory function. Pharynx: Anatomy
    • Blood
  • Note: Blood cultures are typically negative in children, but are often positive in adults.
• Biopsy Biopsy Removal and pathologic examination of specimens from the living body. Ewing Sarcoma:^[3,9] 
  • Can be used for confirmation if the diagnosis is unclear.
  • Findings:
    • Superficial epidermal splitting Splitting Defense Mechanisms
    • Noninflammatory 
• Supporting workup:^[2,4]
  • Leukocytosis Leukocytosis A transient increase in the number of leukocytes in a body fluid. West Nile Virus
  • ↑ ESR ESR Soft Tissue Abscess
  • Basic metabolic panel Basic Metabolic Panel Primary vs Secondary Headaches → assess for dehydration Dehydration The condition that results from excessive loss of water from a living organism. Volume Depletion and Dehydration and electrolyte imbalances
  • Chest radiography → rule out staphylococcal pneumonia Staphylococcal Pneumonia Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS) as the originating source

Management

Management of SSSS SSSS Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS), also known as Ritter disease and staphylococcal epidermal necrolysis, is a toxin-mediated condition caused by Staphylococcus aureus. The exfoliative toxin produced disseminates and cleaves desmoglein 1 in the epidermis, causing separation and detachment of the skin. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS) includes aggressive treatment of primary infection Primary infection Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2 and supportive care. The following recommendations are based on the most recent literature and guidelines for the treatment of staphylococcal infections Staphylococcal Infections Infections with bacteria of the genus staphylococcus. Glycopeptides from the US and UK.

Supportive measures

• Hospital admission:^[9,13]
  • Care unit:
    • Burn unit Burn unit Specialized hospital facilities which provide intensive care for burn patients. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS) (if available) for severe cases
    • Intensive care unit
  • Place on contact precautions
• Fluid management:^[3,9,12]
  • Encourage oral intake, if possible.
  • Access:
    • Peripheral venous access
    • Central venous catheter Central Venous Catheter Central venous catheters are IV lines placed into the large central veins for monitoring of central venous pressure (CVP), prolonged drug administration, or administration of parenteral nutrition. The most common sites of insertion are the internal jugular and subclavian veins. Central Venous Catheter and arterial access may be needed if hemodynamically unstable 
  • Place urinary catheter to monitor urinary output → maintain output of:
    • 0.5‒1 ml/kg/hr for adults
    • 1‒2 ml/kg/hr for children < 30 kg
  • Fluid resuscitation Resuscitation The restoration to life or consciousness of one apparently dead. . Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome is a dynamic process and should be adjusted based on hemodynamic status and urine output.
• Electrolyte management:^[9,10]
  • Monitor labs and replace electrolytes Electrolytes Electrolytes are mineral salts that dissolve in water and dissociate into charged particles called ions, which can be either be positively (cations) or negatively (anions) charged. Electrolytes are distributed in the extracellular and intracellular compartments in different concentrations. Electrolytes are essential for various basic life-sustaining functions. Electrolytes as necessary.
  • Beware of the risk for hyponatremia Hyponatremia Hyponatremia is defined as a decreased serum sodium (sNa+) concentration less than 135 mmol/L. Serum sodium is the greatest contributor to plasma osmolality, which is very tightly controlled via antidiuretic hormone (ADH) release from the hypothalamus and by the thirst mechanism. Hyponatremia
• Temperature management: Warming blankets may be needed to maintain temperature.^[9]
• Gentle skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions and wound care:^[3,9]
  • Dress denuded areas with soft silicone wound dressings (primary).
  • Cover with saline-soaked gauze.
  • Avoid betadine and silver sulfadiazine Sulfadiazine One of the short-acting sulfonamides used in combination with pyrimethamine to treat toxoplasmosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and in newborns with congenital infections. Sulfonamides and Trimethoprim in large denuded areas ( toxicity Toxicity Dosage Calculation).
• Analgesia Analgesia Methods of pain relief that may be used with or in place of analgesics. Anesthesiology: History and Basic Concepts:^[9,10,12,13]
  • Acetaminophen Acetaminophen Acetaminophen is an over-the-counter nonopioid analgesic and antipyretic medication and the most commonly used analgesic worldwide. Despite the widespread use of acetaminophen, its mechanism of action is not entirely understood. Acetaminophen is a good initial option.
  • NSAIDs NSAIDS Primary vs Secondary Headaches are generally avoided.
  • For severe pain Pain An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons. Pain: Types and Pathways, opioids Opioids Opiates are drugs that are derived from the sap of the opium poppy. Opiates have been used since antiquity for the relief of acute severe pain. Opioids are synthetic opiates with properties that are substantially similar to those of opiates. Opioid Analgesics may be considered.
  • Sedation may be needed with dressing changes, especially in pediatric patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship.

Antibiotic coverage

IV antibiotics should be initiated upon suspicion of the diagnosis.^[9] 

• For coverage of methicillin-sensitive S. aureus S. aureus Potentially pathogenic bacteria found in nasal membranes, skin, hair follicles, and perineum of warm-blooded animals. They may cause a wide range of infections and intoxications. Staphylococcus (MSSA):^[10,11]
  • Oxacillin
  • Nafcillin Nafcillin A semi-synthetic antibiotic related to penicillin. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS)
  • Cefazolin Cefazolin A semisynthetic cephalosporin analog with broad-spectrum antibiotic action due to inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis. It attains high serum levels and is excreted quickly via the urine. Cephalosporins
  • Flucloxacillin (not available in the US)^[9]
  • For penicillin Penicillin Rheumatic Fever allergy Allergy An abnormal adaptive immune response that may or may not involve antigen-specific IgE Type I Hypersensitivity Reaction: Consider clarithromycin Clarithromycin A semisynthetic macrolide antibiotic derived from erythromycin that is active against a variety of microorganisms. It can inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria by reversibly binding to the 50s ribosomal subunits. This inhibits the translocation of aminoacyl transfer-RNA and prevents peptide chain elongation. Macrolides and Ketolides or cefuroxime.^[9,10]
• If no improvement with penicillinase-resistant penicillins Penicillinase-Resistant Penicillins Penicillins, then switch to coverage of methicillin-resistant S. aureus S. aureus Potentially pathogenic bacteria found in nasal membranes, skin, hair follicles, and perineum of warm-blooded animals. They may cause a wide range of infections and intoxications. Staphylococcus ( MRSA MRSA A strain of Staphylococcus aureus that is non-susceptible to the action of methicillin. The mechanism of resistance usually involves modification of normal or the presence of acquired penicillin binding proteins. Staphylococcus):^[9‒11]
  • Vancomycin Vancomycin Antibacterial obtained from streptomyces orientalis. It is a glycopeptide related to ristocetin that inhibits bacterial cell wall assembly and is toxic to kidneys and the inner ear. Glycopeptides (preferred)
  • Linezolid Linezolid An oxazolidinone and acetamide derived anti-bacterial agent and protein synthesis inhibitor that is used in the treatment of gram-positive bacterial infections of the skin and respiratory tract. Oxazolidinones (alternative)
• Clindamycin Clindamycin An antibacterial agent that is a semisynthetic analog of lincomycin. Lincosamides may be added in severe cases:^[3,10,11]
  • May ↓ toxin production
  • Evidence is lacking
• Average treatment duration: 7–10 days^[14]

Neutralization of ETA^[9,13]

• 91% of adults > 40 years have neutralizing antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins: Types and Functions to ETA
• For severely ill pediatric patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship, consider either:
  • Fresh frozen plasma Fresh Frozen Plasma Transfusion Products 10 mL/kg 
  • 5-day course on IV immunoglobulin Iv Immunoglobulin Dermatomyositis (0.4 g/kg/day)
• Data are limited.

Prognosis Prognosis A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual’s condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations. Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas^[9,10]

With treatment:

• Most cases resolve in 2–3 weeks.
• Lesions should heal without scarring Scarring Inflammation.

Differential Diagnosis

• Stevens–Johnson syndrome: a cutaneous, immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction that is commonly triggered by medications: Stevens–Johnson syndrome runs on a spectrum with toxic epidermal necrolysis Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and is characterized by keratinocyte necrosis Keratinocyte Necrosis Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and separation of the epidermis Epidermis The external, nonvascular layer of the skin. It is made up, from within outward, of five layers of epithelium: (1) basal layer (stratum basale epidermidis); (2) spinous layer (stratum spinosum epidermidis); (3) granular layer (stratum granulosum epidermidis); (4) clear layer (stratum lucidum epidermidis); and (5) horny layer (stratum corneum epidermidis). Skin: Structure and Functions from the dermis Dermis A layer of vascularized connective tissue underneath the epidermis. The surface of the dermis contains innervated papillae. Embedded in or beneath the dermis are sweat glands; hair follicles; and sebaceous glands. Skin: Structure and Functions. Patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship will present with a flu-like prodrome Prodrome Symptoms that appear 24–48 hours prior to migraine onset. Migraine Headache, followed by cutaneous bullae Bullae Erythema Multiforme and sloughing. Unlike SSSS SSSS Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS), also known as Ritter disease and staphylococcal epidermal necrolysis, is a toxin-mediated condition caused by Staphylococcus aureus. The exfoliative toxin produced disseminates and cleaves desmoglein 1 in the epidermis, causing separation and detachment of the skin. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS), the mucous membranes are involved. Management is largely supportive, and withdrawal of the causative agent is required.
• Bullous impetigo Bullous Impetigo Impetigo: a superficial skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions infection caused by Streptococcus Streptococcus Streptococcus is one of the two medically important genera of gram-positive cocci, the other being Staphylococcus. Streptococci are identified as different species on blood agar on the basis of their hemolytic pattern and sensitivity to optochin and bacitracin. There are many pathogenic species of streptococci, including S. pyogenes, S. agalactiae, S. pneumoniae, and the viridans streptococci. Streptococcus or Staphylococcus Staphylococcus Staphylococcus is a medically important genera of Gram-positive, aerobic cocci. These bacteria form clusters resembling grapes on culture plates. Staphylococci are ubiquitous for humans, and many strains compose the normal skin flora. Staphylococcus: Unlike SSSS SSSS Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS), also known as Ritter disease and staphylococcal epidermal necrolysis, is a toxin-mediated condition caused by Staphylococcus aureus. The exfoliative toxin produced disseminates and cleaves desmoglein 1 in the epidermis, causing separation and detachment of the skin. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS), the exotoxin remains localized and does not spread. Bullous impetigo Bullous Impetigo Impetigo is commonly seen in children and manifests as clusters of vesicles Vesicles Female Genitourinary Examination that quickly enlarge and form bullae Bullae Erythema Multiforme. After the bullae Bullae Erythema Multiforme burst, the exposed bases Bases Usually a hydroxide of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium or cesium, but also the carbonates of these metals, ammonia, and the amines. Acid-Base Balance become covered with a honey-colored crust Honey-Colored Crust Impetigo. The diagnosis is clinical, but cultures may be obtained from the lesions if the patient does not respond to antibiotic therapy.
• Bullous pemphigoid Bullous pemphigoid Bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris are two different blistering autoimmune diseases. In bullous pemphigoid, autoantibodies attack the hemidesmosomes, which connect epidermal keratinocytes to the basement membrane. This attack results in large, tense subepidermal blisters. Bullous Pemphigoid and Pemphigus Vulgaris: an autoimmune blistering disease caused by antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins: Types and Functions against hemidesmosomes: Patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship are usually elderly and present with pruritic, tense, bullous lesions and spared mucosal surfaces. Triggers include medications, trauma, skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions conditions, and systemic disease. Biopsy Biopsy Removal and pathologic examination of specimens from the living body. Ewing Sarcoma with immunofluorescent staining is used for the diagnosis. Management includes steroids Steroids A group of polycyclic compounds closely related biochemically to terpenes. They include cholesterol, numerous hormones, precursors of certain vitamins, bile acids, alcohols (sterols), and certain natural drugs and poisons. Steroids have a common nucleus, a fused, reduced 17-carbon atom ring system, cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene. Most steroids also have two methyl groups and an aliphatic side-chain attached to the nucleus. Benign Liver Tumors, immunosuppressants Immunosuppressants Immunosuppressants are a class of drugs widely used in the management of autoimmune conditions and organ transplant rejection. The general effect is dampening of the immune response. Immunosuppressants, and antiinflammatory medications.
• Pemphigus vulgaris Pemphigus vulgaris Bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris are two different blistering autoimmune diseases. In pemphigus vulgaris, autoantibodies attack the desmosomal proteins, which connect the keratinocytes to one another. This attack results in a more severe, potentially fatal condition with fragile, flaccid blisters, usually with significant mucosal involvement. Bullous Pemphigoid and Pemphigus Vulgaris: an autoimmune disorder Autoimmune Disorder Septic Arthritis due to antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins: Types and Functions against desmoglein 1 Desmoglein 1 A desmosomal cadherin that is an autoantigen in the acquired skin disorder pemphigus foliaceus. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS) and 3, causing intraepidermal blistering and erosions Erosions Corneal Abrasions, Erosion, and Ulcers of the skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions and mucous membranes: Patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship will have cutaneous bullae Bullae Erythema Multiforme appearing on normal-appearing skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Skin: Structure and Functions and painful mucocutaneous erosions Erosions Corneal Abrasions, Erosion, and Ulcers. Diagnosis is by biopsy Biopsy Removal and pathologic examination of specimens from the living body. Ewing Sarcoma with immunofluorescent staining. Blistering occurs lower in the epidermis Epidermis The external, nonvascular layer of the skin. It is made up, from within outward, of five layers of epithelium: (1) basal layer (stratum basale epidermidis); (2) spinous layer (stratum spinosum epidermidis); (3) granular layer (stratum granulosum epidermidis); (4) clear layer (stratum lucidum epidermidis); and (5) horny layer (stratum corneum epidermidis). Skin: Structure and Functions than occurs with SSSS SSSS Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS), also known as Ritter disease and staphylococcal epidermal necrolysis, is a toxin-mediated condition caused by Staphylococcus aureus. The exfoliative toxin produced disseminates and cleaves desmoglein 1 in the epidermis, causing separation and detachment of the skin. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS). Management includes corticosteroids Corticosteroids Chorioretinitis, immunosuppressants Immunosuppressants Immunosuppressants are a class of drugs widely used in the management of autoimmune conditions and organ transplant rejection. The general effect is dampening of the immune response. Immunosuppressants, and IV immunoglobulin Iv Immunoglobulin Dermatomyositis.
• Exfoliative dermatitis Dermatitis Any inflammation of the skin. Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema): a generalized, symmetric, erythematous, scaling rash Rash Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever caused by an underlying cutaneous disease ( psoriasis Psoriasis Psoriasis is a common T-cell-mediated inflammatory skin condition. The etiology is unknown, but is thought to be due to genetic inheritance and environmental triggers. There are 4 major subtypes, with the most common form being chronic plaque psoriasis. Psoriasis, atopic dermatitis Dermatitis Any inflammation of the skin. Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)), medications, and malignancy Malignancy Hemothorax ( lymphoma Lymphoma A general term for various neoplastic diseases of the lymphoid tissue. Imaging of the Mediastinum): Unlike SSSS SSSS Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS), also known as Ritter disease and staphylococcal epidermal necrolysis, is a toxin-mediated condition caused by Staphylococcus aureus. The exfoliative toxin produced disseminates and cleaves desmoglein 1 in the epidermis, causing separation and detachment of the skin. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS), bullae Bullae Erythema Multiforme are not typically seen and the Nikolsky sign Nikolsky Sign Dermatologic Examination is negative. Diagnosis is made clinically, and management focuses on treating the underlying cause, withdrawal of implicated medications, and supportive care.
• Toxic shock syndrome Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) is an acute, multi-systemic disease caused by the toxin-producing bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes. Staphylococcal TSS is more common and associated with tampons and nasal packing. Toxic Shock Syndrome: a systemic syndrome caused by Staphylococcus Staphylococcus Staphylococcus is a medically important genera of Gram-positive, aerobic cocci. These bacteria form clusters resembling grapes on culture plates. Staphylococci are ubiquitous for humans, and many strains compose the normal skin flora. Staphylococcus or Streptococcus Streptococcus Streptococcus is one of the two medically important genera of gram-positive cocci, the other being Staphylococcus. Streptococci are identified as different species on blood agar on the basis of their hemolytic pattern and sensitivity to optochin and bacitracin. There are many pathogenic species of streptococci, including S. pyogenes, S. agalactiae, S. pneumoniae, and the viridans streptococci. Streptococcus endotoxins Endotoxins Toxins closely associated with the living cytoplasm or cell wall of certain microorganisms, which do not readily diffuse into the culture medium, but are released upon lysis of the cells. Bacteriology: Patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship present with fever Fever Fever is defined as a measured body temperature of at least 38°C (100.4°F). Fever is caused by circulating endogenous and/or exogenous pyrogens that increase levels of prostaglandin E2 in the hypothalamus. Fever is commonly associated with chills, rigors, sweating, and flushing of the skin. Fever, shock Shock Shock is a life-threatening condition associated with impaired circulation that results in tissue hypoxia. The different types of shock are based on the underlying cause: distributive (↑ cardiac output (CO), ↓ systemic vascular resistance (SVR)), cardiogenic (↓ CO, ↑ SVR), hypovolemic (↓ CO, ↑ SVR), obstructive (↓ CO), and mixed. Types of Shock, and multisystem organ dysfunction, which are not seen in SSSS SSSS Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS), also known as Ritter disease and staphylococcal epidermal necrolysis, is a toxin-mediated condition caused by Staphylococcus aureus. The exfoliative toxin produced disseminates and cleaves desmoglein 1 in the epidermis, causing separation and detachment of the skin. Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS). Cutaneous manifestations include a diffuse, erythematous rash Rash Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever and desquamation Desquamation Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS). Diagnosis is based on blood culture results, the clinical history, and the exam. Management includes hemodynamic support, fluid resuscitation Resuscitation The restoration to life or consciousness of one apparently dead. . Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome, and antibiotics.