Respiratory Acidosis

Overview

Definition

Respiratory acidosis is the process that results in an accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) due to abnormal gas exchange Gas exchange Human cells are primarily reliant on aerobic metabolism. The respiratory system is involved in pulmonary ventilation and external respiration, while the circulatory system is responsible for transport and internal respiration. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) represents movement of air into and out of the lungs. External respiration, or gas exchange, is represented by the O2 and CO2 exchange between the lungs and the blood. Gas Exchange in the lungs Lungs Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. Lungs: Anatomy. In primary respiratory acidosis, the arterial blood gas Arterial blood gas Respiratory Alkalosis will show:

• pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance < 7.35 
• PCO₂ ( partial pressure Partial pressure The pressure that would be exerted by one component of a mixture of gases if it were present alone in a container. Gas Exchange of carbon dioxide) > 45 mm MM Multiple myeloma (MM) is a malignant condition of plasma cells (activated B lymphocytes) primarily seen in the elderly. Monoclonal proliferation of plasma cells results in cytokine-driven osteoclastic activity and excessive secretion of IgG antibodies. Multiple Myeloma Hg (i.e., hypercapnia Hypercapnia A clinical manifestation of abnormal increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in arterial blood. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome)

Epidemiology

• Incidence Incidence The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from prevalence, which refers to all cases in the population at a given time. Measures of Disease Frequency: varies based on the etiology
• More common in:
  • End-stage chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Pulmonary disease Diseases involving the respiratory system. Blastomyces/Blastomycosis ( COPD COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease characterized by progressive, largely irreversible airflow obstruction. The condition usually presents in middle-aged or elderly persons with a history of cigarette smoking. Signs and symptoms include prolonged expiration, wheezing, diminished breath sounds, progressive dyspnea, and chronic cough. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD))
  • Surgical patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship

Acid–Base Review

Acid–base disorders are classified according to the primary disturbance (respiratory or metabolic) and the presence or absence of compensation.

Identifying the primary disturbance

Look at the pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance, PCO₂ ( partial pressure Partial pressure The pressure that would be exerted by one component of a mixture of gases if it were present alone in a container. Gas Exchange of CO₂), and HCO₃^– ( bicarbonate Bicarbonate Inorganic salts that contain the -HCO3 radical. They are an important factor in determining the ph of the blood and the concentration of bicarbonate ions is regulated by the kidney. Levels in the blood are an index of the alkali reserve or buffering capacity. Electrolytes) to determine the primary disturbance. 

• Normal values:
  • pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance: 7.35–7.45
  • PCO₂:  35–45 mm MM Multiple myeloma (MM) is a malignant condition of plasma cells (activated B lymphocytes) primarily seen in the elderly. Monoclonal proliferation of plasma cells results in cytokine-driven osteoclastic activity and excessive secretion of IgG antibodies. Multiple Myeloma Hg
  • HCO₃^–: 22–28 mEq/L
• “-emia” versus “-osis”:
  • “-emia” refers to “in the blood”:
    • Acidemia: more hydrogen ions (H⁺) in the blood = pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance < 7.35
    • Alkalemia Alkalemia Respiratory Alkalosis: more hydroxide ions (OH^–) in the blood = pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance > 7.45 
  • “-osis” refers to a process:
    • Acidosis and alkalosis Alkalosis A pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids. Respiratory Alkalosis refer the processes that cause acidemia and alkalemia Alkalemia Respiratory Alkalosis. 
    • pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance may be normal in acidosis and alkalosis Alkalosis A pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids. Respiratory Alkalosis.
• Primary (uncompensated) respiratory disorders:
  • Disorders caused by abnormalities in PCO₂
  • Both the pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance and PCO₂ are abnormal, in opposite directions.
  • Primary respiratory acidosis:  pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance < 7.35 and PCO₂ > 45 
  • Primary respiratory alkalosis Alkalosis A pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids. Respiratory Alkalosis: pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance > 7.45 and PCO₂ < 35
• Primary (uncompensated) metabolic disorders:
  • Disorders caused by abnormalities in HCO₃^– 
  • Both the pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance and PCO₂ are abnormal, in the same direction. 
  • Primary uncompensated metabolic acidosis Primary uncompensated metabolic acidosis Metabolic Acidosis:  
    • pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance < 7.35 and PCO₂ < 40 
    • Think: “So the acidosis is not due to ↑ CO₂ … it must be due to ↓ serum HCO₃^– → metabolic acidosis Metabolic acidosis The renal system is responsible for eliminating the daily load of non-volatile acids, which is approximately 70 millimoles per day. Metabolic acidosis occurs when there is an increase in the levels of new non-volatile acids (e.g., lactic acid), renal loss of HCO3-, or ingestion of toxic alcohols. Metabolic Acidosis”
    • Confirm by looking at HCO₃^–: will be low (< 22 mEq/L)
  • Primary uncompensated metabolic alkalosis Primary uncompensated metabolic alkalosis Metabolic Alkalosis:
    • pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance > 7.45 and PCO₂ > 40
    • Think: “So the alkalosis Alkalosis A pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids. Respiratory Alkalosis is not due to ↓ CO₂… it must be due to ↑ serum HCO₃^– → metabolic alkalosis Alkalosis A pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids. Respiratory Alkalosis”
    • Confirm by looking at HCO₃^–: will be high (> 28 mEq/L)
• Simple disorders:
  • The presence of one of the above disorders with appropriate compensation
  • Respiratory disorders are compensated by renal mechanisms.
  • Metabolic disorders are compensated by respiratory mechanisms
• Mixed disorders: two primary disorders present

Compensation

When acidosis or alkalosis Alkalosis A pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids. Respiratory Alkalosis develops, the body will try to compensate. Often, compensation will result in a normal pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance.

• In primary respiratory acid–base disorders, the kidney may try to compensate in an attempt to normalize the pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance.
  • Kidneys Kidneys The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs located retroperitoneally against the posterior wall of the abdomen on either side of the spine. As part of the urinary tract, the kidneys are responsible for blood filtration and excretion of water-soluble waste in the urine. Kidneys: Anatomy respond to respiratory acidosis by increasing serum HCO₃^– through ↑ secretion Secretion Coagulation Studies of H⁺.
  • Kidneys Kidneys The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs located retroperitoneally against the posterior wall of the abdomen on either side of the spine. As part of the urinary tract, the kidneys are responsible for blood filtration and excretion of water-soluble waste in the urine. Kidneys: Anatomy respond to respiratory alkalosis Alkalosis A pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids. Respiratory Alkalosis by decreasing serum HCO₃^– through:
    • ↓ Secretion Secretion Coagulation Studies of H⁺
    • Urinary excretion of HCO₃^– (normally bicarbonate Bicarbonate Inorganic salts that contain the -HCO3 radical. They are an important factor in determining the ph of the blood and the concentration of bicarbonate ions is regulated by the kidney. Levels in the blood are an index of the alkali reserve or buffering capacity. Electrolytes is 100% absorbed)
• In primary metabolic acid–base disorders, the lungs Lungs Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. Lungs: Anatomy may try to compensate in an attempt to normalize the pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance.
  • Lungs Lungs Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. Lungs: Anatomy respond to metabolic acidosis Metabolic acidosis The renal system is responsible for eliminating the daily load of non-volatile acids, which is approximately 70 millimoles per day. Metabolic acidosis occurs when there is an increase in the levels of new non-volatile acids (e.g., lactic acid), renal loss of HCO3-, or ingestion of toxic alcohols. Metabolic Acidosis by ↑ ventilation Ventilation The total volume of gas inspired or expired per unit of time, usually measured in liters per minute. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing.
  • Lungs Lungs Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. Lungs: Anatomy respond to metabolic alkalosis Alkalosis A pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids. Respiratory Alkalosis by ↓ ventilation Ventilation The total volume of gas inspired or expired per unit of time, usually measured in liters per minute. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing.
• Interpreting the serum HCO₃^–:
  • Normal range: 22–28 mEq/L
  • ↑ HCO₃^– is due to either:
    • Metabolic alkalosis Alkalosis A pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids. Respiratory Alkalosis, or
    • Compensated chronic respiratory acidosis
  • ↓ HCO₃^– is due to either:
    • Metabolic acidosis Metabolic acidosis The renal system is responsible for eliminating the daily load of non-volatile acids, which is approximately 70 millimoles per day. Metabolic acidosis occurs when there is an increase in the levels of new non-volatile acids (e.g., lactic acid), renal loss of HCO3-, or ingestion of toxic alcohols. Metabolic Acidosis, or
    • Compensated chronic respiratory alkalosis Chronic respiratory alkalosis Respiratory Alkalosis

Pathophysiology and Etiology

Review of relevant pulmonary concepts

• Tidal volume Tidal volume The volume of air inspired or expired during each normal, quiet respiratory cycle. Common abbreviations are tv or V with subscript t. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing (TV): volume of air moved into and out of the lungs Lungs Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. Lungs: Anatomy per breath
• Hypercapnia Hypercapnia A clinical manifestation of abnormal increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in arterial blood. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome: elevated levels of CO₂ in the blood
• Dead space Dead space That part of the respiratory tract or the air within the respiratory tract that does not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with pulmonary capillary blood. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing: air in the respiratory tree that does not participate in gas exchange Gas exchange Human cells are primarily reliant on aerobic metabolism. The respiratory system is involved in pulmonary ventilation and external respiration, while the circulatory system is responsible for transport and internal respiration. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) represents movement of air into and out of the lungs. External respiration, or gas exchange, is represented by the O2 and CO2 exchange between the lungs and the blood. Gas Exchange
  • Anatomic dead space Anatomic dead space Respiratory Alkalosis:
    • Upper airway Airway ABCDE Assessment down to the terminal bronchioles Bronchioles The small airways branching off the tertiary bronchi. Terminal bronchioles lead into several orders of respiratory bronchioles which in turn lead into alveolar ducts and then into pulmonary alveoli. Bronchial Tree: Anatomy
    • Fixed volume of air
  • Alveolar dead space Dead space That part of the respiratory tract or the air within the respiratory tract that does not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with pulmonary capillary blood. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing:
    • Refers to certain alveoli Alveoli Small polyhedral outpouchings along the walls of the alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts and terminal bronchioles through the walls of which gas exchange between alveolar air and pulmonary capillary blood takes place. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) that are ventilated but not perfused
    • Normally very small total volume, unless there is a pathologic process
  • Physiologic dead space Physiologic dead space Respiratory Alkalosis = anatomic dead space Anatomic dead space Respiratory Alkalosis + alveolar dead space Dead space That part of the respiratory tract or the air within the respiratory tract that does not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with pulmonary capillary blood. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing 
• Effects of deep versus shallow breaths:
  • Deep breath Deep breath Respiratory Alkalosis:  ↑ TV + fixed volume of dead space Dead space That part of the respiratory tract or the air within the respiratory tract that does not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with pulmonary capillary blood. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing
    • Dead space Dead space That part of the respiratory tract or the air within the respiratory tract that does not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with pulmonary capillary blood. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing is a smaller fraction of total ventilation Ventilation The total volume of gas inspired or expired per unit of time, usually measured in liters per minute. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing.
    • Better gas exchange Gas exchange Human cells are primarily reliant on aerobic metabolism. The respiratory system is involved in pulmonary ventilation and external respiration, while the circulatory system is responsible for transport and internal respiration. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) represents movement of air into and out of the lungs. External respiration, or gas exchange, is represented by the O2 and CO2 exchange between the lungs and the blood. Gas Exchange → no hypercapnia Hypercapnia A clinical manifestation of abnormal increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in arterial blood. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome
  • Shallow breath Shallow breath Respiratory Alkalosis = ↓ TV + fixed volume of dead space Dead space That part of the respiratory tract or the air within the respiratory tract that does not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with pulmonary capillary blood. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing
    • Dead space Dead space That part of the respiratory tract or the air within the respiratory tract that does not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with pulmonary capillary blood. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing is a higher fraction of total ventilation Ventilation The total volume of gas inspired or expired per unit of time, usually measured in liters per minute. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing.
    • Worse gas exchange Gas exchange Human cells are primarily reliant on aerobic metabolism. The respiratory system is involved in pulmonary ventilation and external respiration, while the circulatory system is responsible for transport and internal respiration. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) represents movement of air into and out of the lungs. External respiration, or gas exchange, is represented by the O2 and CO2 exchange between the lungs and the blood. Gas Exchange → risk for hypercapnia Hypercapnia A clinical manifestation of abnormal increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in arterial blood. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• Minute ventilation Minute ventilation Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing:
  • Volume of air moved into and out of the lungs Lungs Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. Lungs: Anatomy per minute
  • Minute ventilation Minute ventilation Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing = tidal volume Tidal volume The volume of air inspired or expired during each normal, quiet respiratory cycle. Common abbreviations are tv or V with subscript t. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing × respiratory rate Respiratory rate The number of times an organism breathes with the lungs (respiration) per unit time, usually per minute. Pulmonary Examination
• Alveolar ventilation Alveolar ventilation Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing (V_A):
  • The fraction of the minute ventilation Minute ventilation Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing that participates in gas exchange Gas exchange Human cells are primarily reliant on aerobic metabolism. The respiratory system is involved in pulmonary ventilation and external respiration, while the circulatory system is responsible for transport and internal respiration. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) represents movement of air into and out of the lungs. External respiration, or gas exchange, is represented by the O2 and CO2 exchange between the lungs and the blood. Gas Exchange 
  • V_A is inversely related to PaCO₂
    • As ventilation Ventilation The total volume of gas inspired or expired per unit of time, usually measured in liters per minute. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing ↑ → PaCO₂ ↓ 
    • As ventilation Ventilation The total volume of gas inspired or expired per unit of time, usually measured in liters per minute. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing ↓ → PaCO₂ ↑ 
  • V_A = ( tidal volume Tidal volume The volume of air inspired or expired during each normal, quiet respiratory cycle. Common abbreviations are tv or V with subscript t. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing – dead space Dead space That part of the respiratory tract or the air within the respiratory tract that does not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with pulmonary capillary blood. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing) × respiratory rate Respiratory rate The number of times an organism breathes with the lungs (respiration) per unit time, usually per minute. Pulmonary Examination

Pathophysiology

Respiratory acidosis occurs when the PCO₂ is elevated. 

• Causes of respiratory acidosis:
  • ↓ Alveolar ventilation Alveolar ventilation Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing (V_A):
    • ↓ Respiratory rate Respiratory rate The number of times an organism breathes with the lungs (respiration) per unit time, usually per minute. Pulmonary Examination
    • ↓ Tidal volume Tidal volume The volume of air inspired or expired during each normal, quiet respiratory cycle. Common abbreviations are tv or V with subscript t. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing
    • ↑ Dead space Dead space That part of the respiratory tract or the air within the respiratory tract that does not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with pulmonary capillary blood. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing
  • Severe ↓ lung diffusion Diffusion The tendency of a gas or solute to pass from a point of higher pressure or concentration to a point of lower pressure or concentration and to distribute itself throughout the available space. Diffusion, especially facilitated diffusion, is a major mechanism of biological transport. Peritoneal Dialysis and Hemodialysis capacity 
  • Severe ventilation Ventilation The total volume of gas inspired or expired per unit of time, usually measured in liters per minute. Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing–perfusion mismatch
• These conditions may occur because of abnormalities in the respiratory pathway affecting CO₂ elimination Elimination The initial damage and destruction of tumor cells by innate and adaptive immunity. Completion of the phase means no cancer growth. Cancer Immunotherapy:
  • CNS
  • Peripheral nervous system Peripheral nervous system The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system has autonomic and somatic divisions. The autonomic nervous system includes the enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic subdivisions. The somatic nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves and their ganglia and the peripheral sensory receptors. Nervous System: Anatomy, Structure, and Classification
  • Respiratory muscles and the chest wall Chest wall The chest wall consists of skin, fat, muscles, bones, and cartilage. The bony structure of the chest wall is composed of the ribs, sternum, and thoracic vertebrae. The chest wall serves as armor for the vital intrathoracic organs and provides the stability necessary for the movement of the shoulders and arms. Chest Wall: Anatomy
  • Upper airways 
  • Lungs Lungs Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. Lungs: Anatomy

Etiology

Renal compensation Renal compensation Respiratory Alkalosis

The kidneys Kidneys The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs located retroperitoneally against the posterior wall of the abdomen on either side of the spine. As part of the urinary tract, the kidneys are responsible for blood filtration and excretion of water-soluble waste in the urine. Kidneys: Anatomy respond to respiratory acidosis by increasing serum HCO₃^–.

• Mechanism of ↑ HCO₃^–: ↑ renal secretion Secretion Coagulation Studies of H⁺
  • H⁺ exists in the nephrons as H₂CO₃ (carbonic acid).
  • For each H⁺ secreted, one HCO₃^– is left over (i.e., regenerated).
  • This HCO₃^– is then reabsorbed into circulation Circulation The movement of the blood as it is pumped through the cardiovascular system. ABCDE Assessment → ↑ serum HCO₃^–  
• Level of HCO₃^– increases:
  • Initially by approximately 1 mEq/L per 10 mm MM Multiple myeloma (MM) is a malignant condition of plasma cells (activated B lymphocytes) primarily seen in the elderly. Monoclonal proliferation of plasma cells results in cytokine-driven osteoclastic activity and excessive secretion of IgG antibodies. Multiple Myeloma Hg ↑ in PaCO₂
  • By approximately 4 mEq/L per 10 mm MM Multiple myeloma (MM) is a malignant condition of plasma cells (activated B lymphocytes) primarily seen in the elderly. Monoclonal proliferation of plasma cells results in cytokine-driven osteoclastic activity and excessive secretion of IgG antibodies. Multiple Myeloma Hg ↑ in the partial pressure Partial pressure The pressure that would be exerted by one component of a mixture of gases if it were present alone in a container. Gas Exchange of arterial CO₂ (PaCO₂) in patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship with chronic respiratory acidosis
• Process takes 3–5 days to complete:
  • Cells must undergo physical changes to allow increased H⁺ secretion Secretion Coagulation Studies.
  • Serum HCO₃^– and pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance rise slowly during this time.
  • pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance improves.

Acute versus chronic respiratory acidosis

Acute versus chronic respiratory acidosis is defined by the degree of renal compensation Renal compensation Respiratory Alkalosis.

• Acute respiratory acidosis is uncompensated:
  • Not enough time for renal compensation Renal compensation Respiratory Alkalosis to occur
  • More likely to be symptomatic because of hypercapnia Hypercapnia A clinical manifestation of abnormal increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in arterial blood. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome
  • High risk for acute respiratory failure Respiratory failure Respiratory failure is a syndrome that develops when the respiratory system is unable to maintain oxygenation and/or ventilation. Respiratory failure may be acute or chronic and is classified as hypoxemic, hypercapnic, or a combination of the two. Respiratory Failure within minutes to hours
• Chronic respiratory acidosis is compensated:
  • Renal compensation Renal compensation Respiratory Alkalosis is complete.
  • Usually asymptomatic, despite chronic hypercapnia Hypercapnia A clinical manifestation of abnormal increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in arterial blood. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome
  • Low risk for acute respiratory failure Respiratory failure Respiratory failure is a syndrome that develops when the respiratory system is unable to maintain oxygenation and/or ventilation. Respiratory failure may be acute or chronic and is classified as hypoxemic, hypercapnic, or a combination of the two. Respiratory Failure within the next minutes to hours
  • Significant long-term risk for acute respiratory failure Respiratory failure Respiratory failure is a syndrome that develops when the respiratory system is unable to maintain oxygenation and/or ventilation. Respiratory failure may be acute or chronic and is classified as hypoxemic, hypercapnic, or a combination of the two. Respiratory Failure if exposed to additional insults

Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Management

Clinical presentation and diagnosis

Diagnosing a respiratory acidosis typically requires an arterial blood gas Arterial blood gas Respiratory Alkalosis.

• Clinical presentation of hypercapnia Hypercapnia A clinical manifestation of abnormal increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in arterial blood. Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome:
  • Neurologic:
    • Anxiety Anxiety Feelings or emotions of dread, apprehension, and impending disaster but not disabling as with anxiety disorders. Generalized Anxiety Disorder/paranoia
    • Headaches
    • Somnolence
    • Delirium Delirium Delirium is a medical condition characterized by acute disturbances in attention and awareness. Symptoms may fluctuate during the course of a day and involve memory deficits and disorientation. Delirium
    • Coma Coma Coma is defined as a deep state of unarousable unresponsiveness, characterized by a score of 3 points on the GCS. A comatose state can be caused by a multitude of conditions, making the precise epidemiology and prognosis of coma difficult to determine. Coma
  • Pulmonary: dyspnea Dyspnea Dyspnea is the subjective sensation of breathing discomfort. Dyspnea is a normal manifestation of heavy physical or psychological exertion, but also may be caused by underlying conditions (both pulmonary and extrapulmonary). Dyspnea (usually mild)
• Diagnosis: primarily with an arterial blood gas Arterial blood gas Respiratory Alkalosis (ABG):
  • Acute respiratory acidosis:
    • pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance < 7.35
    • PaCO₂ > 45 mm MM Multiple myeloma (MM) is a malignant condition of plasma cells (activated B lymphocytes) primarily seen in the elderly. Monoclonal proliferation of plasma cells results in cytokine-driven osteoclastic activity and excessive secretion of IgG antibodies. Multiple Myeloma Hg
    • Normal HCO₃^–
  • Chronic respiratory acidosis (compensated):
    • pH pH The quantitative measurement of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acid-Base Balance < 7.4 (low or near-normal)
    • PaCO₂ > 45 mm MM Multiple myeloma (MM) is a malignant condition of plasma cells (activated B lymphocytes) primarily seen in the elderly. Monoclonal proliferation of plasma cells results in cytokine-driven osteoclastic activity and excessive secretion of IgG antibodies. Multiple Myeloma Hg
    • HCO₃^– elevated

Management

• Assess the ABCs:
  • Ensure that the airway Airway ABCDE Assessment is secure.
  • Administer supplemental O₂.
  • Ventilatory support as needed
• Treat the underlying etiology; examples include:
  • COPD COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease characterized by progressive, largely irreversible airflow obstruction. The condition usually presents in middle-aged or elderly persons with a history of cigarette smoking. Signs and symptoms include prolonged expiration, wheezing, diminished breath sounds, progressive dyspnea, and chronic cough. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) exacerbation: bronchodilators Bronchodilators Asthma Drugs and corticosteroids Corticosteroids Chorioretinitis
  • Pneumonia Pneumonia Pneumonia or pulmonary inflammation is an acute or chronic inflammation of lung tissue. Causes include infection with bacteria, viruses, or fungi. In more rare cases, pneumonia can also be caused through toxic triggers through inhalation of toxic substances, immunological processes, or in the course of radiotherapy. Pneumonia in neuromuscular disorders: antibiotics
• Avoid respiratory sedatives.

Clinical Relevance

• Myasthenia gravis Myasthenia Gravis Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness and fatigability of skeletal muscles caused by dysfunction/destruction of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. MG presents with fatigue, ptosis, diplopia, dysphagia, respiratory difficulties, and progressive weakness in the limbs, leading to difficulty in movement. Myasthenia Gravis: an autoimmune disorder Autoimmune Disorder Septic Arthritis characterized by abnormalities in neuromuscular conduction that results in fluctuating weakness and can lead to acute hypercapnic respiratory failure Hypercapnic Respiratory Failure Respiratory Failure 
• Guillain–Barré syndrome: a postinfectious acute, immune-mediated polyneuropathy Immune-Mediated Polyneuropathy Guillain-Barré Syndrome of the peripheral nerve roots characterized by progressive, symmetrical Symmetrical Dermatologic Examination, and ascending paralysis that ultimately affects the patient’s ability to breath 
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Pulmonary disease Diseases involving the respiratory system. Blastomyces/Blastomycosis ( COPD COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease characterized by progressive, largely irreversible airflow obstruction. The condition usually presents in middle-aged or elderly persons with a history of cigarette smoking. Signs and symptoms include prolonged expiration, wheezing, diminished breath sounds, progressive dyspnea, and chronic cough. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)): a spectrum of conditions characterized by irreversible airflow limitation due to chronic inflammation Chronic Inflammation Inflammation of small airways: Exacerbations of COPD COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease characterized by progressive, largely irreversible airflow obstruction. The condition usually presents in middle-aged or elderly persons with a history of cigarette smoking. Signs and symptoms include prolonged expiration, wheezing, diminished breath sounds, progressive dyspnea, and chronic cough. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) can impair alveolar ventilation Alveolar ventilation Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing, raise PaCO₂, and induce an acidotic state.
• Asthma Asthma Asthma is a chronic inflammatory respiratory condition characterized by bronchial hyperresponsiveness and airflow obstruction. The disease is believed to result from the complex interaction of host and environmental factors that increase disease predisposition, with inflammation causing symptoms and structural changes. Patients typically present with wheezing, cough, and dyspnea. Asthma: a chronic inflammatory condition of the airways, characterized by bronchial hyperreactivity Bronchial hyperreactivity Tendency of the smooth muscle of the tracheobronchial tree to contract more intensely in response to a given stimulus than it does in the response seen in normal individuals. This condition is present in virtually all symptomatic patients with asthma. The most prominent manifestation of this smooth muscle contraction is a decrease in airway caliber that can be readily measured in the pulmonary function laboratory. Asthma, which presents as wheezing Wheezing Wheezing is an abnormal breath sound characterized by a whistling noise that can be relatively high-pitched and shrill (more common) or coarse. Wheezing is produced by the movement of air through narrowed or compressed small (intrathoracic) airways. Wheezing, cough, and dyspnea Dyspnea Dyspnea is the subjective sensation of breathing discomfort. Dyspnea is a normal manifestation of heavy physical or psychological exertion, but also may be caused by underlying conditions (both pulmonary and extrapulmonary). Dyspnea: Acute exacerbations of asthma Asthma Asthma is a chronic inflammatory respiratory condition characterized by bronchial hyperresponsiveness and airflow obstruction. The disease is believed to result from the complex interaction of host and environmental factors that increase disease predisposition, with inflammation causing symptoms and structural changes. Patients typically present with wheezing, cough, and dyspnea. Asthma cause a sudden impairment of alveolar ventilation Alveolar ventilation Ventilation: Mechanics of Breathing and can lead to respiratory acidosis.