Nephritic Syndrome in Children
Overview Definition Nephritic syndrome is defined as renal disease caused by immune-mediated inflammation and injury of the glomeruli with classic features of: Epidemiology Etiology Primary (renal) causes of nephritic syndrome in children: Secondary causes of nephritic syndrome in children: Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Signs and symptoms Physical exam Complications Patients can also present with manifestations of […]
Supracondylar Fracture
Overview Definition A supracondylar fracture affects the distal humerus, just above the elbow, and is seen frequently in the pediatric population. Epidemiology Etiology Pathophysiology The distal humerus’s supracondylar area in children is made of thin, structurally weak developing bone, making it a common fracture site. Classification Gartland classification is based on the degree of displacement: […]
Truncus Arteriosus
Overview Anatomy A single common arterial trunk gives rise to pulmonary trunk and aorta: Exact location from which pulmonary arteries arise varies (see classification). 1 valve associated with trunk: Semilunar valve known as truncal valve Composed of variable (2–6) leaflets Valve may be stenotic, regurgitant, or both. Associated cardiac anomalies include: Ventricular septal defect (VSD): […]
Coarctation of the Aorta
Overview Definition Coarctation of the aorta is a narrowing of the aorta caused by the thickening of the medial layer at a localized point, most commonly near the insertion of the ductus arteriosus. Types Preductal: The narrowing is located proximally to the ductus arteriosus. Postductal: The narrowing is located distally to the ductus arteriosus. Epidemiology […]
Intestinal Malrotation
Overview Definition Intestinal malrotation is a failure of the GI tract to undergo normal rotation around mesenteric vessels during embryogenesis. Epidemiology Asymptomatic malrotation is present in ~ 1 in 500 births. Symptomatic malrotation (midgut volvulus) occurs in 1:6000 neonates. 30% will present by 1st month, and 58% by 1 year of life. Boys = Girls […]
Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (TAPVR)
Overview Definition Total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) is a cyanotic congenital heart defect that results in the drainage of the 4 pulmonary veins into the systemic venous circulation, rather than into the left atrium, resulting in mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. An interatrial defect (ASD, PFO, or PDA) must be present to allow […]
Tricuspid Valve Atresia (TVA)
Overview Definition Tricuspid valve atresia (TVA) is a congenital heart defect (CHD) featuring the complete absence or agenesis of the tricuspid valve (TV) resulting in a lack of communication between the right atrium (RA) and the right ventricle (RV). Tricuspid valve atresia (TVA) is considered a cyanotic congenital heart disease (CCHD) as most patients present […]
Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)
Overview Definition A ventricular septal defect (VSD) is a malformation of the interventricular septum (IVS) resulting in an abnormal communication between the left ventricle (LV) and the right ventricle (RV). This defect may present in isolation, or be a part of another anomaly, such as tetralogy of Fallot. Classification There are 4 main subtypes of […]
Vascular Rings
Overview Definition A vascular ring is a congenital malformation in which the esophagus and trachea are encircled by an aberrant aorta. Embryology Anatomy Although the clinical symptoms and treatment approach are the same, there are multiple ways in which the development of the aortic arch can give rise to a vascular ring. Each variant is […]
Buckle or Torus Fracture
Overview Definition A buckle, or torus, fracture is a fracture that primarily affects growing metaphyseal bone secondary to a compression load, in which the bone buckles or compresses. Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis The clinical presentation of pediatric patients with buckle fractures is similar to patients with other pediatric fractures. History Physical exam Imaging […]