Ophthalmic Exam
Introduction Overview Eye examination recommendations Recommended frequency of eye exams is not standard, but in general: A dilated exam helps diagnose: History Anatomy The eye and its appendages are situated in the orbit. The eyeball is spheroidal and attached to the extraocular muscles. Equipment for examination Vision Testing Visual acuity testing Snellen chart: Near-vision chart: […]
Meniscus Tear
Overview Definition Epidemiology Etiology Types of meniscal tears There are several types of tear patterns in meniscal tears: Pathophysiology Clinical anatomy: Traumatic mechanisms for tears: Clinical Presentation History Physical examination Diagnosis Diagnosis is usually suspected with a thorough history and physical examination, and often confirmed with diagnostic imaging (e.g., MRI) or by direct visualization (e.g., […]
Seizures
Overview Definition Seizures are episodes of neurologic dysfunction caused by abnormal excitatory activities of neurons characterized by a sudden change in senses, perception, motor activity, or behavior. Epidemiology Seizure phases Pathophysiology Step 1: short in the circuit Step 2: driving of normal neighbors Step 3: failure of inhibition Clinical Presentation Focal seizures Table: Types of […]
Hormones: Overview and Types
Hormones and Endocrine Glands Definition Hormones are messenger molecules that are synthesized in one part of the body and move through the bloodstream to exert specific regulatory effects on another part of the body. General functions of hormones Major functions of hormones include: Endocrine glands and organs The major endocrine glands in the body include: […]
Alzheimer Disease
Overview Definition Alzheimer disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that causes brain atrophy and a decline in cognition, memory, and social skills. Epidemiology Etiology Although the cause of Alzheimer disease is unknown, several genetic defects and risk factors have been identified. Pathophysiology The pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease is unclear; however, there is an increase in […]
Corneal Abrasions, Erosion, and Ulcers
Overview Anatomy The cornea is a transparent, avascular part of the eye that covers the iris, anterior chamber, and pupil. The corneal layers include: Definition Corneal epithelial defects are conditions that disturb the structural integrity of the cornea. Corneal abrasions, erosions, and ulcers are defects in the corneal epithelium and are classified by the depth […]
Thyroid Replacement Therapy
Overview Pathophysiology of hypothyroidism Medical condition defined by deficiency of thyroid hormones: Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3) These hormones play an integral role in various functions: Metabolism Growth and development Catecholamine function Pituitary hormone synthesis regulation (feedback loop) Clinically, a deficiency in these hormones can lead to abnormal changes in: Energy levels Weight Thermoregulation HR Bowel […]
Cluster Headaches
Overview Definition Cluster headaches are named based on their tendency to occur in clusters lasting from weeks to months, and interrupted by periods of remission. The defining features include: Severe intensity Unilateral pain Association with autonomic symptoms (ipsilateral to pain): Miosis Ptosis Lacrimation Conjunctival injection Rhinorrhea Nasal congestion Facial diaphoresis Classification Cluster headache belongs to […]
Acute Kidney Injury
Overview Definition Acute kidney injury refers to an abrupt decrease in kidney function, manifested by an increase in serum creatinine level, with or without reduced urine output. Classification Previously there had been more than 30 definitions of “acute renal failure” in the literature, and these have been updated to the term AKI. Epidemiology Etiology and […]
Tension Headaches
Overview Definition A tension headache attack is defined by the following features: Classification Three primary headache disorders: Three tension headache subtypes: Epidemiology Pathophysiology The pathophysiology of tension headache is multifactorial, but the precise mechanisms are largely unknown. Pain mechanisms are dynamic and vary from 1 individual to another. Peripheral activation Activation of myofascial nociceptors due […]