Coma
Overview Definition Table: Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) Description Points Eye opening Spontaneous 4 Responds to speech 3 Responds to pain 2 None 1 Best verbal response Oriented 5 Confused 4 Inappropriate words 3 Incomprehensible words 2 None 1 Best motor response Obeys commands 6 Localizes pain 5 Withdraws from pain 4 Decorticate posturing (flexion) 3 […]
Adrenal Glands: Anatomy
Overview Location There are 2 adrenal glands in the body and each gland is in close association with a kidney. The adrenal glands are: Borders/anatomic relations Development Gross Anatomy General structure The adrenal glands are composed of 2 functionally separate layers: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. Each layer has its own embryologic origins, […]
Kidney Function Tests
Overview Anatomy of the nephron Nephron: Parts of nephron: Physiology of urine production Urine is a waste by-product composed of excess water and metabolic waste filtered out of the bloodstream by nephrons. Urine formation is a stepwise process. Serologic Parameters of Renal Function Creatinine and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) The most commonly used […]
Eicosanoids
Overview Eicosanoids Biosynthesis Thromboxanes Description Effects Clinical correlation Inflammatory effects of TXA2 in some conditions: Prostaglandins Description Effects Table: Effects of prostaglandins Prostaglandins Effects PGD2 (made predominantly by mast cells) Vasodilation Chemotaxis PGE1 Vasodilation ↓ Production of gastric acid Uterine contraction (↑ tone) PGE2 Vasodilation Inflammation: Pain (hyperalgesic) Arterial dilatation (redness) Swelling (↑ microvascular permeability) […]
Spinal Muscular Atrophy
Overview Definition Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a spectrum of autosomal recessive syndromes characterized by progressive proximal muscle weakness and atrophy, possibly due to degeneration of the anterior horn cells in the spinal cord and motor nuclei in the lower brainstem. Classification Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Spinal muscular atrophy presents as a lower motor neuron […]
Sturge-Weber Syndrome (SWS)
Overview Epidemiology The incidence is approximately 1 in 20,000 to 50,000 live newborns. Etiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Symptoms are usually due to the effect of capillary-venous malformation within the brain, skin, and eye. Not all symptoms have to be present in an individual for them to be diagnosed with SWS, and some symptoms may develop […]
Primary vs Secondary Headaches
Overview Definitions Epidemiology Etiology Classification All headaches can be classified as either primary or secondary and subclassified into a variety of schemes developed for clinical, epidemiologic, research, and coding purposes. The most common and clinically significant will be covered in detail here: Primary headaches Subtypes: Primary headache disorders may be subclassified by clinical diagnosis criteria: […]
Hypothalamus
Development The hypothalamus is a collection of various nuclei within the center of the brain that develops early during embryologic life. Neural tube The 1st step is development of the neural tube. Primary and secondary neural vesicles The neural tube develops 3 “bulges” known as the primary vesicles: Gross Anatomy Location Boundaries Table: Boundaries of […]
Gonadal Hormones
Overview Definition Gonadal hormones: The gonadal hormones are produced by the human gonads: the testes and ovaries. These hormones include: Gendered terminology: Recognizing the complexity and sensitive nature around gendered terminology, for the purposes of this document: Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis Hormones secreted by the gonads are stimulated by, and help to regulate, the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular (HPT) […]
Hypothalamic and Pituitary Hormones
Overview Definitions Hormones are messenger molecules that are synthesized in one part of the body and exert specific regulatory effects on another part of the body. Hypothalamic hormones: Secreted directly by neurons from the hypothalamus Act on the pituitary gland Represent the point of integration between the CNS and endocrine system Pituitary hormones: Secreted from […]